Morality and Ethics

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Where does morality come from? Morality comes from God? Plato’s Euthyphro Is something wrong because God says it’s wrong or does God say its wrong because it is wrong. We have to use our own judgment to decide right and wrong.

Metaethics How do we determine what is right and wrong? System of ethics Justification for ethics Three popular ethical schemes: Virtue ethics Deontological ethics Utilitarianism

Virtue Ethics Aristotle (384 B.C. – 322 B.C.) Ancient Greek philosopher and student of Plato Virtue consists of realizing our natural human potential as rational animals (our telos) Eudaimonia (happiness, the good life) is achieved through the cultivation of human virtues, such as wisdom, justice, courage, generousity, kindness and moderation.

The good life People are virtuous in order to cultivate their own soul and achieve a higher happiness Focus on motivations for actions, rather than consequences The goal is self-realization: to be noble, honorable, decent Cf. Confucious’s junzi 君子 What kind of people do we want to be? Do we want to be the kind of people who would do that?

Problems with virtue ethics Do people really have a telos? If not, how can the virtues be justified? Is cultivating the virtues really the best way for an individual to maximize his human potential? People can do the wrong thing for the right reasons Surely the action is wrong even if the motivation is right

Deontological Ethics Kant (1724-1804), German philosopher Rightness of actions is independent of consequences. The Categorical Imperative defines our moral duties. Moral duties, e.g. not to kill or harm innocent people not to lie to keep promises to respect the rights of others The Categorical Imperative can be understood through reason.

Deontological Ethics (cont.) The Categorical Imperative can be worked out through the principle of universalizability: "Always act according to that maxim whose universality as a law you can at the same time will", and is the "only condition under which a will can never come into conflict with itself…" (Kant, Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals) Rational beings have an intrinsic worth and dignity. The end (purpose) of morality is in preserving the well-being and dignity of all rational agents: “Act with reference to every rational being (whether yourself or another) so that it is an end in itself in your maxim…“ You must never treat a person as a means, but always as an end.

Problems with deontological ethics Problem of justification for Categorical Imperative – where does it come from Not all good actions can be universalized Rigid e.g. if we have a categorical imperative not to lie, it is wrong to lie even if by lying to a mad gunman, we can save an innocent person’s life It is not always possible never to treat a rational agent as an end, e.g. war

Utilitarianism John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), English philosopher A form of consequentialism An act is judged to be moral or immoral according to its consequences. Instrumentalist good vs. Intrinsic good Instrumentalist good: good as a means by which to realize an intrinsic good, e.g. medicine Intrinsic good: something good in and of itself, e.g. happiness

Utilitarianism (cont.) Happiness and the absence of suffering are the ultimate intrinsic goods. The goal of morality is to maximize happiness (“the greatest good for the greatest number”) An act is good if it maximizes the collective happiness and minimizes the collective suffering.

Problems with Utilitarianism Seemingly immoral acts can be judged moral, e.g. killing an innocent person. Consequences are often difficult or impossible to predict. The morality of an act may depend on chance (how the consequences happen to play out). How can you calculate units of goodness (utiles)? Happiness and lack of suffering may not be the only intrinsic goods.

Varieties of Utilitarianism Act utilitarianism classic utilitarianism Preference utilitarianism aim to maximize the fulfillment of people’s preferences, rather than happiness Rule utilitarianism act in accordance with rules that, in the long run, tend to maximize happiness/preferences

Thought experiments Kid breaks a vase Transplant case Trolley case Should he lie to his Mom? What’s the harm? Transplant case Kill one innocent bystander and transplant his organs to five patients to save their lives Trolley case A runaway train is about to hit 5 people standing on the track. Should you push a fat man in front of the train? A runaway train is about to hit 5 people on Track A. Should you throw a switch to make the train go down Track B, where one person is standing (and will be hit).

Suggested readings On reserve in Philosophy Dept. Office:  Internet Sources: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, at: http://plato.stanford.edu/ Entries on: Consequentialism and Deontological Ethics and Virtue Ethics Mill, John Stuart, Utilitarianism (1863), available at: www.utilitarianism.com/mill1.htm On reserve in Philosophy Dept. Office:  Stephen Law, The Philosophy Gym, Chapter 17, “Killing Mary to Save Jodie”