Sexuality Dating Sexual activity Problems in adolescence Contraception Pregnancy Abortion Parenthood Sex education programs

Sexuality in Adolescence Physical changes: Puberty Increased sex drive (motivation) Maturation of sex organs (reproduction) Secondary sex characteristics Cognitive changes: Introspective reflection Self-consciousness Hypothetical thinking Conjecture Impulse control Social changes Significance of sexual relations Curiosity becomes sexual motivation Connection with adult roles

Developmental Challenges Comfort with maturing body (changes) Accepting feelings of sexual arousal Engaging in voluntary sexual activities Understanding and practicing safe sex

Developmental Patterns in Dating The American Experience Most adolescent girls begin dating around age 12 or 13 Most adolescent boys begin dating around 13 or 14 By age 15 about 20% of adolescents say they have “gone with” someone Dating before among American adolescents tends to follow a developmental sequence of four steps: Adolescents in same-gender groups go to places where they hope to find other-gender groups Adolescents take part in social gatherings arranged by adults, such as parties Mixed-gender groups arrange to go to some particular event together, such as a movie Adolescent couples begin to date as pairs in activities such as movies, dinners, concerts and so on

Impact of Dating Serious dating before age 15 has a stunting effect on psychosocial development Age-appropriate Dating Recreation - Fun and enjoyment Learning - Becoming more skilled at dating interactions Status - Impressing others according to how often one dates and whom one dates Companionship - Sharing pleasurable activities with another person Intimacy - Establishing a close emotional relationship with another person Adolescent girls who do not date at all show retarded social development excessive dependency on parents feelings of insecurity Page 359 Food for Thought: Some observers of the adolescent scene have noted that traditional one-on-one dating is far less common today than in past generations, and that relatively more interaction between males and females, even those who are romantically interested in each other, occurs in groups than in couples. Does this sound correct to you? If so, what implications does it have for the development of intimacy?

Scripts Expectations for how males and females behave in romantic relationships Shaped by relationships at home Shaped by the mass media Page 359 Food for Thought: Some observers of the adolescent scene have noted that traditional one-on-one dating is far less common today than in past generations, and that relatively more interaction between males and females, even those who are romantically interested in each other, occurs in groups than in couples. Does this sound correct to you? If so, what implications does it have for the development of intimacy?

Dating Scripts Proactive Script Reactive Script Males tend to follow this type of script Includes: initiating the date deciding where they will go controlling the public domain (driving the car) initiating sexual contact Reactive Script Females tend to follow this type of script Focuses on: Private domain (grooming & dress) Responding to the male’s gestures in the public domain Responding to his sexual initiatives

Dating and Romantic Relationships High school dating no longer functions as mate selection, now recreational Romantic relationships are very common, in the past 18 months 25% of 12-year-olds reported having one 50% of 15-year-olds reported having one 70% of 18-year-olds reported having one

Dating and Romantic Relationships Dating and the Development of Intimacy Dating can mean a variety of things Group activities involving boys and girls Casual dating in couples Serious involvement in a steady relationship Transitions into and out of romantic relationships can be difficult for adolescents Breakups are the leading trigger for depression Page 356

Sternberg’s Theory of Love Forms of Love Passion Physical attraction and sexual desire Intimacy Closeness and emotional attachment Commitment Pledge to love over the long run Liking No Yes Infatuation Empty Love Romantic Love Companionate Love Fatuous Consummate Love

Applying Sternberg to Adolescence In most adolescent love relationships, commitment is either missing or highly tentative The absence of long term commitment in adolescence means that there are two principal types of adolescent love: infatuation and romantic love Keep in Mind ….. In industrialized countries people are not likely to get married until they are in at least their mid- to late twenties Under these circumstances it is understandable that adolescents’ love relationship would not involve commitment as much as passion or intimacy

Falling in Love Consensual validation People like to find in others an agreement, or consensus, with their own characteristics Finding this consensus supports, or validates, their own way of looking at the world People of all ages tend to have romantic relationships with people who are similar to them in characteristics such as: Intelligence Social class Ethnic background Religious beliefs Physical attractiveness

Sexual Activity Sexual Activity Males Females Masturbation Majority of boys begin about age 13 90% by age 19 33% of females reported masturbating by age 13 60% to 75% by age 20 Necking and Petting 60% of 13 year olds had kissed at least once 20% reported touching a girl’s breast By age 18, 77% reported penile touching 73% of 13 year olds had kissed at least once 35% reported having their breast touched By age 18, 60% reported vaginal touching Sexual Intercourse and Oral Sex Before 1965, 25% of boys reported having intercourse After 1965, 54% of boys reported having intercourse Before 1965, 10% of girls reported having intercourse After 1965, 52% of girls reported having intercourse

Ethnic Differences The proportion of high school students in grades 9-12 who have had intercourse is: Lowest for White adolescents (49%) Somewhat higher for Latino adolescents (58%) Highest for African American adolescents (73%) Research has indicated that Asian Americans are considerably less likely to engage in sexual activity in adolescence compared with any other major American ethnic group

Cultural Beliefs and Adolescent Sexuality Restrictive cultures: Place strong prohibitions on adolescent sexual activity before marriage Strict separation of boys and girls in early childhood through adolescence Some countries will even include the threat of physical punishment and public shaming for premarital sex Usually more restrictive for girls than boys Semi-restrictive cultures: Have prohibitions but they are not strongly enforced and are easily evaded If pregnancy results from premarital sex, the adolescents are often forced to marry Permissive cultures: Encourage and expect adolescent sexuality Sexual behavior is encouraged even in childhood and the sexuality of adolescence is simply a continuation of the sex play in childhood

Sexual Activity Sexual Intercourse During Adolescence By the end of sophomore year of high school, more than 40% have had heterosexual vaginal intercourse For many girls (~25%), the first sexual experience is not voluntary By age 15, about 25% of U.S. adolescents have had heterosexual vaginal intercourse. Page 369

The Timing of Sexual Initiation Adolescents are more likely to lose their virginity during certain times of the year June and December are peak months May, June, July common regardless of romantic involvement (prom, graduation) Holiday season in December is peak time for serious relationships

Changes in Adolescent Sexual Activity Over Time The percentage of sexually active adolescents increased during 1970s and 80s, decreased slightly from 1995 to 2001 One-third of adolescents have early sexual intercourse (before ninth grade) Greatest increase in prevalence of premarital intercourse has been among females Sexual intercourse, once delayed until early adulthood, is clearly now a part of the typical adolescent’s experience, regardless of the young person’s ethnic or socioeconomic background. More than half of all teenagers have sexual intercourse before graduating from high school, and two-thirds have had intercourse before turning 19. Page 372

Trends in sexual attitudes Premarital sexual activity acceptable From 20% (1960) to 50% (1980) Early adolescence sexual activity acceptable 1/3 sexually active by 15 15% by 13 Female sexual activity acceptable 5x more females sexually experienced in high school

Sexually Active Adolescents Psychological/Social Characteristics of Sexually Active Adolescents Sexual activity during adolescence (age 16 or later) Is not associated with psychological disturbance Levels of self-esteem and life satisfaction are similar to other adolescents’ However, early sexual activity (before age 16) has negative correlates like: Experimentation with drugs and alcohol Lower levels of religious involvement Higher tolerance of deviant behavior Lower interest in academic achievement Higher orientation toward independence Page 372

What Influences Sexual Activity? Hormones are especially important for boys Testosterone surge sparks initial interest in sex for boys and girls (girls are also influenced by estrogens) Boys who are more popular with girls and mature earlier tend to initiate sex earlier than unpopular boys Biological factors have a very strong influence on boys’ sexual behavior Context is especially important for girls The most important predictor of girls’ involvement in sexual intercourse is whether their friends are doing it or have sexually permissive attitudes Social factors are more important in influencing girl’s involvement in sexual intercourse than boys’. Page 374

Parents and sexual activity Authoritative parenting Later sexual activity Less risky sexual activity Parent-adolescent conflict Earlier sexual activity High-risk sexual activity STD transmission Pregnancy

Parents and sexual activity Parent-child communication Most effective for females (rather than males) with mothers (rather than fathers) if communication of values/attitudes for preventing risky sexual behaviors

Parents and sexual activity Household composition Adolescents in midst of divorce Increase in risky behaviors generally Females in single-parent home Why females? Social influences (parent control) Mother likely to date (sexual role models) Seeking alternative sources of support Genetic Men leave family/Women have sex early

Parents and sexual activity Sensitive to sexual activity levels (“normative standards”) Peers Siblings perceived or actual Sexual initiation More experienced adolescents with less experienced adolescents Epidemic model (e.g. Kids)

Ecological model Individual-level factors Family-level factors Intelligence Drug use (risk behaviors) Sexual abuse Family-level factors Single-parent homes Poor parenting Low SES Extra-familial factors Sexually active friends Committed relationship Low-quality neighborhood Few positive school experiences

Peer Influences Having sexually active peers establishes a normative standard that having sex is okay Peers also can communicate directly about sex, with friends or with potential partners Risk factors for sexual activity are cumulative

Sexually Active Adolescents Characteristics of non-virgins Similar self-esteem as virgins Similar overall life satisfaction as virgins More likely to be early maturing Tend to have lower levels of academic performance and academic aspirations Adolescents who have sex early (15 years old or younger) Early users of drugs and alcohol More likely to be from single parent households More likely to have grown up in poverty

Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Adolescents It is during adolescence that most gay, lesbian and bisexual (GLB) people become fully aware of their sexual orientation Coming out beginning at an average age of 14 for gay males and a year or two later for lesbians Involves a person’s recognizing his or her own sexual identity and then disclosing the truth to friends, family and others Homophobia Fear and hatred of homosexuals Because of this phenomenon, coming to the realization of a GLB identity can be traumatic for many adolescents

Contraceptive Use Among Sexually Active Adolescents Many adolescents fail to use contraception regularly Although rates have improved since 1970s, ~40% of high school students did not use a condom the most recent time they had sex Contraception may not be readily available for all adolescents Page 386 (1/3 of males) Page 387 (20% to 30% of young people) Why is birth control not used by so many teens? The barrier among younger adolescents, may be their discomfort discussing their sexual activity with parents or other adults whose help or consent may be necessary in order to obtain birth control. Also, many young people are insufficiently educated about sex, contraception, and pregnancy. Page 387

Contraceptive Use and Nonuse Why do most sexually active adolescents fail to use contraception consistently? Think about: Infrequency of sex Cognitive development Personal fable Embarrassment

Contraceptive Use and Nonuse Two types of countries have low rates of teenage pregnancy: Those that are permissive about adolescent sex Those that adamantly forbid adolescent sex Restrictive Countries Japan South Korea Morocco Adolescents are strongly discouraged from even dating It is rare for boys and girls to spend time alone together Permissive Countries Denmark Sweden Netherlands They have explicit safe sex campaigns. Adolescents have easy access to contraception

Teenage Pregnancy and Childbearing Nearly one-third of American women become pregnant by age 20 Not all pregnancies result in childbirth (~30% are aborted, ~15% miscarry) 5% American teen births result in adoptions America’s teen birth rate is higher than all other industrialized countries Nearly one-fourth of American young women experience pregnancy before the age of 18, and the number increases to about 45 percent before the age of 21. Page 392

What Causes Teen Pregnancy? The most important difference between teens who become pregnant and those who do not is contraceptive use 85% of teen pregnancies are unintended, but those who are less troubled by the prospect of having a baby at a young age are more likely to use contraceptives ineffectively Ambitious, well-educated, middle- to upper-class women who live in wealthier areas are more likely to terminate an unwanted pregnancy Nearly one-fourth of American young women experience pregnancy before the age of 18, and the number increases to about 45 percent before the age of 21. Page 392

Birth, Abortion, and Pregnancy Notice how high the pregnancy rate is in the U.S. Compare this to Canada where sexual activity rates are the same but the pregnancy rate is about half

Facts about the “Facts of Life” About 30% of pregnancies to American adolescents end in abortion 14% of adolescents miscarry Of the children who are born, only about 5% are put up for adoption …. That means about 50% of adolescents raise their own children (sometimes with the help of the father but most often with the help of the adolescent mother’s own mother)

Teen Birth Rates In recent years, birth rates have become highest of all among Latina adolescents Black teens are twice as likely as White teens to get pregnant

What about Mom? Twice as likely to drop out of school Less likely to go to college or become employed Less likely to get married More likely to get divorced if they get married Do they catch up? (a sample of 300 mothers) Five years after given birth teenage mothers still lagged behind their peers in educational, occupational and economic progress After 18 years 25% were still on welfare 25% had succeeded in making it into the middle class A majority had eventually completed high school 33% had completed at least some college education

What about Dad? Being a teenage dad is related to a variety of negative outcomes More likely to become divorced Lower level of education Lower paying job More prone to drug and alcohol use More likely to violate the law More feelings of anxiety and depression Interesting Footnote: Like adolescent mothers, the problems of adolescent fathers often began prior to parenthood

What about Baby? Children born to adolescent mothers face a higher likelihood of a variety of difficulties in life Babies are more likely to be born premature Lower birth weight Premature and low birth weight are related to a variety of physical and intellectual problems Greater likelihood of behavioral problems School misbehaviour, delinquency and early sexual activity It is important to note: These problems are not just due to having an adolescent mother but also due to the fact that most adolescent mothers are not only young and unmarried but poor as well

Sexually Transmitted Diseases By age 24, one in three sexually active Americans have contracted an STD Two thirds of all STDs occur in people who are under 25 years old Two important characteristics of STDs Asymptomatic People show no symptoms of the disease They are especially likely to infect others because neither they nor others realize that they are infected Latency Period There may be years between the time people are infected and the time they being to show symptoms During this time they may be infecting others without either themselves or their partners being aware of it

Sexually Transmitted Diseases Chlamydia Most common STD Highest rates among 15 to 19 year olds Leading cause of female infertility Gonorrhoea Caused by bacteria that thrive in the moist mucous membranes of the body Very easily passed along during sex Females are at least twice as likely as males to become infected Herpes Simplex Caused by a virus Has two variations: herpes simplex I and herpes simplex II Highly infectious (75% of persons exposed to an infected partner will become infected) There is no cure for herpes

Sexually transmitted diseases HIV/AIDS Strips the body of its ability to fend off infections The body is highly vulnerable to a wide variety of illnesses and diseases 90% of cases of HIV in the U.s. result from intercourse between homosexual or bisexual partners Outside the U.S. HIV/AIDS is spread mainly between heterosexual partners Has a long latency period (tend to by asymptomatic up to 5 years) AIDS is the leading cause of death worldwide among persons 25 to 44 years old 10 of every 11 new HIV infections worldwide come from Africa The mortality rate for people who have AIDS remains extremely high

Sex Education Americans agree that rates of premarital pregnancy and STDs in adolescence are serious problems that must be reduced However there is vehement disagreement about what is the best solution One side: comprehensive sexuality education Other side: abstinence promotion Result: Neither!

Sex Education 10 characteristics that make programs work Focus narrowly on reducing one or more sexual behaviors Base the program on theoretical approaches for other risky behaviours Give a clear message about sexual activity and contraceptive use Provide basic, accurate information about risks and methods Include activities that teach how to deal with social pressures Model and provide practice in negotiation and refusal skills Use a variety of teaching methods Incorporate behavioral goals specific to age, culture and sexual experience Run the program over a sufficient period of time Train teacher, youth workers and peer leaders who believe in the program