National University of Educational Planning & Administration (NUEPA) Education, Equality and Social Justice: An Indian Scenario Prof. Ved Prakash Vice-Chancellor April 24, 2008 at Brazil pved@nuepa.org The paper discusses: Constitutional provisions for ensuring equality and social justice with a focus on marginalized sections of the society. It critically examines the educational scenario and development in the country. It also discusses the impact of affirmative policy interventions, key challenges and the way forward to meet the emerging challenges of providing equality of opportunity and social justice through the instrumentality of educational interventions.

India: Unity in Diversity India – largest democracy – multi-cultural, multi-lingual and multi-religious Accommodates 16.7% of the world population in 2.4% of the world surface area Second most populous with 1.28 billion people 200 spoken languages – 22 scheduled languages Stratified society with social inequalities SCs, STs and Minorities constitute 37% population India is the largest democracy in the world. The uniqueness of Indian society is ‘Unity in Diversity’ which is visible in its religions, languages, cultures and castes. There are over 200 languages and almost 1600 dialects that are spoken in the country. Together SCs, STs and minority constitutes 37% of India’s population.

Constitutional Provisions Social justice and Equality– cardinal principles of the Indian democratic system Constitution upholds the principle of equality before law and also provides for affirmative discriminatory action in favor of disadvantaged Compensatory discrimination-an Indian version of affirmative action Special provisions for the advancement of SCs and STs and OBCs under Articles 15, 16, etc. The Indian constitution enacted in 1949 and adopted in 1950 enshrines equality and social justice as the cardinal principles of Indian democratic system. The preamble of the Indian constitution assures Justice-social, economic and political as well as equality of status and of opportunity to promote fraternity, assuring the dignity of the individual. Historically disadvantaged people in India are compensated through reservation – an Indian version of affirmative action. Article 15 & 16 provide for special provisions for the advancement of SCs, STs & OBCs.

Contd… The 86th Amendment to the Constitution inserting Article 21-A Making elementary education a fundamental right will have positive impact on education of SCs, STs, OBCs and Women NPE, 1968 aimed at correcting regional imbalances and inter-group disparities in education NPE, 1986/1992 emphasises the removal of disparities and equalization of educational opportunities Both the Policies suggest interventions to meet the educational needs of SCs, STs, minorities and women

Protective Measures for Inclusivity Kelkar and Mandal Commission suggested for providing special benefits to OBCs Ministry of Minority Affairs – Created in 2004 National Commission for Minority Education in 2004 National Monitoring Committee for Minorities Education (NMCME) in 2004 Standing Committee of NMCME in 2004 Rajindar Sachar Committee, 2005 They recommended 27% reservation to the OBCs in admission to all public institutions of higher learning. This has been recently upheld by the Judgement of the Supreme Court. Now, it is mandatory for all public institutions to reserve 27% seats for the OBCs. Rajindar Sachar Committee was set up by the government of look into the social, economic and educational status of the muslim community of India and to suggest appropriate measures for their advancement.

Population of India in 2001 and Literacy (1961-2001) Of 1.28 billion people, while the SCs are 167 million the muslims are 138 millions and the STs are 84 millions. SCs, Muslims & STs constitute 16.2, 13.4 and 8.2 percent of the total population respectively. The rest of the population is 777 millions which is predominantly Hindus though it includes other minorities like Jains, Sikhs, etc. The literacy rate of general population is 65.38% in 2005-06 while for SCs it is 54.69% and for STs, it is 47.10% and for muslims it is 59.13%.

Educational Levels of Population above 15 Years of Age by Social Groups This figure shows proportion of people above 15 years of age who possess a particular level of education by social groups, gender and rural/urban. We can see wide inequalities across various social groups. At the bottom end are ST rural females with more than 70 per cent illiterate. The proportion of ST rural females with secondary and higher qualification is a miniscule – 4.4 per cent. At the other end of the spectrum are urban other males (other than SC and ST) with a little over 60 per cent having secondary and above qualifications. The illiterates among them constitute a miniscule (7.5) per cent among urban other males.

Growth of Educational Institutions The primary schools have grown by nearly four folds from 210,000 in 1950-51 to 772,000 in 2005-06. Similarly, the number of upper primary and high/higher secondary schools has gone up by more than 20 times during the same period. The upper primary schools have gone up from 14,000 to 288,000. The high/higher secondary schools have gone up from 7,400 to 160,000 during the same period.

Growth of Educational Institutions at Higher Level The higher education sector has witnessed a steep increase during 1950-51 to 2005-06. The number of colleges has gone up by more than 30 times form merely 578 colleges in 1950-51 to nearly 21,000 colleges in 2005-06. Universities and other institutions of higher learning have also gone up from 28 in 1950-51 to 416 in 2005-06. The education sector further poised to grow during the XI Five Year Plan. The XI FYP is aimed at inclusive growth. The expansion of educational opportunities at all levels of education with an emphasis on marginal groups is the key to strategies adopted during the 11th Plan to promote inclusive growth.

Growth of Enrolment at Elementary Level SC enrolment at primary level has increased by 2.3 times from 11 million to 25.2 million and ST enrolment has increased by three times from 4.7 million to 14.2 million between 1980-81 and 2005-06 compared to 1.8 times for total population. At Upper primary level, SC enrolment increased by four times from 2.2 million to 9.14 million and ST enrolment by six times from .742 million to 4.48 million as against an increase of just 2.5 times in case of enrolment of total population from 20.7 million to 52.3 million. It is heartening to note that the enrolment of SC and ST increased at a higher rate than the total population.

Growth of Enrolment at Secondary Level SC enrolment at secondary level has increased by 4.5 times from 1.2 million to 5.6 million. ST enrolment has increased by more than seven times from 0.3 million to 2.2 million. But the increase for general population is found to be three and-a-half times from 11 millions to 38.45 million.

Gross Enrolment Ratio at School Education by Gender and Social Group The participation rates at elementary education as conventionally measured by GER are increasing over the years. The GER is over 100 per cent at primary for all groups, upper primary level it is still hovering a little above 70 per cent. At Secondary level, the participation continues to be thin and GER is still about 40 per cent only 2005-06. Gender disparity is almost insignificant at primary level. Gender parity has significantly improved at upper primary from 0.61 to 0.88. Gender parity has also improved at secondary level from 0.30 to 0.80.

Measure of Social Parity, 2006 We have constructed measure of social parity. Eventhough it is a crude way of examining social equality in the absence of adequate data. At primary and upper primary stages, it appears that the participation rates are near universal and no significant inequalities could be discerned. But the social inequalities seems to be shifting to secondary stage. This assumes significance in the context of limited participation in secondary education. At secondary education level the social parity measure is low. It is found to be 0.91 for SCs and 0.71 for STs in 2005-06. As the under and over-aged children tend to be higher in marginal groups, the social parity may likely to be much lower than these numbers suggest. Therefore the policy concerns should be shifted to consolidating the gains made at primary and upper primary stage and improving the overall participation rates and equity at secondary education.

Dropouts The dropout rates are declining generally and more rapidly since 2000s at primary level. But even now the dropout continues to be very high particularly at upper primary and secondary level. One out of 3 students are dropped out before completing grade V. Half of the students leave before completing grade VIII. Six out of ten students are dropped out before completing grade X.

Growth of Higher Education and Share of Marginal Groups and Women The enrolment in higher education institutions has increased by 6 folds from 1.71 million to 10.16 million. The proportion of girls enrolment at higher education level has increased from 24 per cent to 39 per cent in 2005-06. The proportion of SCs has increased from 8.5 per cent to 12.3 per cent in 2005-06. The proportion of STs has increased from 2.1 per cent to 4.3 per cent in 2005-06. Most of the students from marginal groups tend to concentrate in conventional courses. Their share in progressive areas like engineering or research is much less than their corresponding share in population.

GER in Higher Education GER at higher education level increased from 10 per cent to 11.6 for general population from 2004-05 to 2005-06. Substantial disparities are observed between gender and castes. The GER for girls is 9.4 per cent as compared to 13.6 per cent for boys in 2005-06. The GER for SC girls is 6.4 per cent as compared to 10.16 per cent for boys. The GER for ST girls is 4.69 per cent as compared to 8.59 per cent for boys. Concerted efforts are, therefore, required to close these gender gaps on the one hand and increase their participation rates on the other.

Policy Interventions at Elementary Level Special interventions for SCs & STs under SSA: supply of free text books and uniforms remedial classes for improving the learning competency development of instructional material in local dialect for STs training of teachers at BRCs and CRCs on tribal pedagogy child tracking Child tracking is carried out to ensure that the children enrolled continue their studies and complete their education.

Contd… Interventions for Girls: Free text books to all girls up to class VIII Separate toilet for girls Back to school camps for out-of-school girls Bridge courses for older girls Recruitment of 50% women teachers ECCE centers in schools/convergences with ICDS programme Gender-sensitive teaching-learning materials including textbooks Intensive community mobilization efforts

Contd… Innovation fund per district for need based interventions for ensuring girls’ attendance and retention National Programmes for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL) Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) Special funds are provided under NPEGEL to promote girls enrolment and retention. KGBVs are special residential schools, which have been established in backward areas for the education of girls.

Policy Interventions at Secondary Level Remedial and special coaching for SCs and STs in classes IX-XII 15% seats are reserved for SCs and 7.5% for STs in KVS, and no tuition fee Many states provide free uniforms, textbooks and bicycles to all SC and ST girl students In residential schools like Ashram schools & Jawahar Navodya Vidyalayas seats are reserved for SCs and STs in proportion to their population in the district Provision for 6000 high quality model schools at block level Up-gradation of 15000 existing primary schools to secondary schools

Contd… Expansion of KVS and JNVs More hostels for girls, SCs and STs and OBCs Establishment of girls secondary schools at block headquarters and in towns with more than 10,000 population Intensive use of ICT, etc.

Policy Interventions at Higher Education Level 15% reservation for SCs and 7.5% for STs is mandatory in all public funded institutions 27% reservation to OBCs in all centrally funded institutions of higher learning Relaxation in the minimum qualifying marks Free coaching for SCs & STs for entry into services and other competitive exams Free remedial coaching for SCs & STs to enable them to upgrade their merit Seats are reserved in hostels for disadvantaged

Contd… Scholarship for SCs & STs who get into notified institutions to meet the requirements for full tuition fees, living expenses, books and stationery ‘Book Bank Scheme’ for SCs & STs pursuing professional courses Students with disabilities amongst SCs and STs are also provided specified special allowances like readers allowance, transport allowance, escort allowance etc. 17 overseas scholarships – each year to the meritorious SC and ST students for pursuing higher studies abroad

Contd… Government proposes to establish 370 new colleges in districts with GER less than national average 14 world class universities and 16 Central Universities in hitherto uncovered states Increased support to institutions with large percentage of SC, ST, OBC, girls and minority population To build more hostels for the students belonging to underprivileged sections of the society

Major Challenges at Elementary Level Wide gap between supply and demand because of large number of students and vastness of the country Bringing all children into the fold of elementary schooling Increasing the internal efficiency of schools Increasing the intake capacity of existing institutions Setting up of new institutions Ensuring competent and qualified teacher in each classroom Reinventing curriculum Introduction of appropriate pedagogy Implementation of continuous and comprehensive evaluation

Contd… Increasing the number of learners with increased learning Improving the transition rate from lower primary to upper primary Creating equal opportunities for accessing elementary schooling Bridging gender and social gaps Reducing dropout rates Providing research based interventions in backward areas Mobilization of public resources, etc.

Major Challenges at Secondary Level Increasing access besides creating equal opportunities in backward areas Up-gradation and rationalization of infrastructure and teaching learning facilities in existing institutions School mapping to ensure requirements of existing schools and opening of new institutions Teacher preparation Meeting additional teacher requirements Professional development of teachers Equity concerns with regard to gender, social groups and minority communities

Contd… Special interventions in terms of differential treatment to ensure both participation and success of one and all Up-gradation and diversification of curriculum to make it more relevant in today’s context Integration of ICT in all public institutions Expansion of open and distance learning facilities Building district and sub-district data base

Major Challenges at Higher Education Level Increasing access ratio to a minimum threshold of 20% Optimizing the existing institutions Creating new facilities in backward areas to make higher education more inclusive Ensure larger participation of SC, ST, Women and minority students in progressive disciplines Capping the tuition fees to protect the interest of underprivileged class Increase in public funding Appropriate regulations to contain the menace of commercialization

Contd… Ensuring co-existence of both public and private systems Regulation of Distance Education in terms of its quality and cost Promotion of research and its integration with teaching Industry-academia collaboration Successful implementation of affirmative actions for the promotion of deprived sections Autonomy and Accountability Periodic assessment and accreditation of institutions Development of Educational Management Information System

ICT Development in Education in India ICT-Key leveraging factor in national development Manifold increase in the number of institutions providing IT education IT enabled services made significant impact on Indian economy IT sector accounts for 4.1% of the national GDP National e-governance plan, SWAN & CSCs CICs to address the needs of disadvantaged groups Multilingual ICT infrastructure 44 Software Technology parks Current base of internet subscribers iss 4.2 million

ICT contd.. Use of IT for exam results, election results, land records, registration, etc 23 million subscribers for mobile handset Vision 2010 with zero duty regime Vidya Vahini and Gyan Vahini for education & training Multimedia distance education Free software for government schools INSAT- used for Education Television Services (ETS) EMIS of 1.2 million elementary schools by NUEPA

Summing Up Civil societies are obliged to support all humans for fullest development Wise affirmative action policy on the grounds of social justice Excellence is the outcome of diversity Quality without social justice is meaningless Improving access and success be complemented with systemic responses to improve the quality of output indicators Every country develops its system of education to express and promote its unique socio-cultural identity and also to meet the challenges of the times. Planning and execution, therefore, is to be carried out with great sensitivity. This is all the more necessary in a country like India with a plural culture and a concern for egalitarian society. Such a conviction obviously require a wise affirmative action policy on the ground of social justice and equity. We need to understand that by ignoring less privileged, who are more in number and whose talent remains untapped, the system has to accommodate less talented from privileged class. Quality without social justice in meaningless – in fact social justice is a necessary condition to achieve quality.

Contd… Possible interventions for developing the concept of knowledge to include new areas of knowledge and experience Social context must be addressed both in its design and implementation Cardinal principle of promoting equality is not to provide for equal opportunity to all in terms of access but also in the condition for success There is a need to have an affirmative policy which must percolate through to the last person is the queue. It is evident that the social context of education in any country presents a number of challenges which must be addressed by policy makers both in its design and its implementation. It must, however, be appreciated that the cardinal principle of promoting equality is not only to provide for equal opportunity to all in terms of access but also in the condition for success.