Trends in Science Education Jack Holbrook

About the Subject - Science - in School (or subjects that are sub-divisions) QUESTIONS What influenced the beginning of science education in schools? How was science education initially perceived? How has that perception of science education changed? What is the perception of science education today?

Origins of Major Developments in Science Although science has a long history, thanks to the Greeks in Europe, the Chinese and even the Uzbeks in developing astronomy, major developments are more recent and can see their origins as a consequence of the Industrial Revolution.

Outcomes from the Industrial Revolution Cheap energy became available, based on steam, enabling technologies (mechanical at first) to flourish. With new technologies, new frontiers of science were established (raising efficiency of machines; advances in medicine). Developments in science strongly affected society and its offering in universities. There was a need for schools to start to introduce the teaching of science.

Science in school Initially science in school was introduced to form a base for studying science-related subjects at university (Fensham, 2008). The science taught was informational and transmissive, but covered new developments, especially isolation of new chemical elements, classification of living species and developments in the structure of matter. Textbooks formed the basis for teaching and for assessment. There was a belief in a strong association between memory and achievement.

Early changes Rather than simply promoting knowledge, some attempts were made at developing science skills. Practical work in science was introduced by Armstrong in the UK around the turn of the century (1900). This was the heuristic approach and allowed students to discover for themselves. In the UK, science education has traditionally involved practical work and the assessment of practical skills continues even today.

Big change The recognition that knowledge of historical developments and descriptions of scientific processes was not sufficiently suitable for the training of scientists was strongly brought home by: The Soviets putting up Sputnik in 1957 The need for more attention to conceptual learning and its application.

Moving from syllabus to curriculum The revolution following sputnik gave rise to the development of a curricula (geared to learning) rather than a syllabus (geared to content acquisition and its sequence). It also modernised the science content and placed stronger emphasis on conceptual learning rather than information memorisation. But the focus was heavily on chemistry, separate from physics, separately from (often) zoology and botany - (science was a subject mainly for less able students).

Curriculum projects Projects like Chem-study, Harvard physics in the US and Nuffield chemistry, Nuffield physics and Nuffield biology in the UK were initiated and introduced in the 1960s. This coincided with the need for science-trained students, the general interest in science by the public and the popularity of science as a school subject to study, especially by more able students. There is little doubt that these project had an immense impact on science education worldwide.

Pure science The curriculum change was backed up by new ways of assessing - use of MCQ, short answer part questions, rather than fact-laden, essay type questions. But the curriculum was heavily academic and the science ideas were strongly linked to mathematics (geometry, trigonometry and calculus). Calculations, formula/equations were strongly promoted, although comprehension was strongly included alongside analysis. Any introduction of technology was small and very much as an application of the science ideas. Piagetian ideas of stages of development were also included.

Criticisms of the new science In leading countries, where funding of research in education was strong, eg US and UK, criticisms began to emerge: Curricula were mainly for the more able. Learning was not related to developments in society and hence society needs. The approach was still heavily academic with conceptualisation building on memorisation of information and curricula were controlled by external examinations.

Science and Technology New curricula emerged integrating science, particular in the middle school years (grades 6-8/9) Curricula were introduced, especially for the less academically able, relating science and technology and included more practical construction rather than a mathematical base. Subjects, such as woodwork and metallic work and cookery, introduced more conceptual components based on scientific ideas and changed from technical to more technological titles e.g. domestic science, design and technology, plastics technology.

Schools Council In Britain, developments went further as comprehensive schools were developed (as opposed to grammar and secondary modern). Schools were permitted to develop their own curricula (as an externally approved choice against external curricula) and even to set their own assessment strategies handled on a school-controlled, externally moderated basis under a schools council organisational structure. Many diverse curricula started to emerge.

Concern for the purpose of science education Science subjects, now appearing under a multitude of titles, was still isolated from the society and becoming less popular. School-based curricula did not help as these were likely to be geared to the lowest-common-denominator (the weaker students). Disenchantment with science in providing answers to the growing concerns within society was growing e.g. nuclear energy and warfare, eradication of diseases, poverty alleviation. Interest in technology was growing, being seen as associated with raising the quality of life and offering new career opportunities.

Emphasis shift During this time there were shifting emphases and controversies were arising associated with these. For instance, the relative emphases on the ‘processes’ versus the ‘products’ of science; - development of process skills within or separate from content . the need to better link science with its technological and social implications, as opposed to the current emphasis on pure science inquiry as a predominant feature of school science, and the need to pay much more attention to context in supporting students learning science content. There was, of course, also changes in the nature of what was being taught, as contemporary science ideas were brought into the curriculum.

Science-Technology-Society Movement This movement promoted the need to bring the teaching of science more related to the needs of society. There was a need to recognise that the teaching of science in school needed to relate to the issues and concerns within society. Issues in society did not solely depend on science and technology as they could be view as ‘good’ by some, but ‘bad’ by others. Science and its relation to technology needed to play its place in societal developments. Skills beyond cognitive developments were needed, especially decision- making, where the science was considered alongside economic, environmental cultural, political, social and ethical considerations.

Shift of emphasis from matters of content to matters of concern In science education incorporating matters of concern, the wider ethical, social and human questions intrude naturally into science topics. For example, in studying global warming, students can develop networks of questions that involved exploring the many aspects of the science of warming mechanisms, the modelling and predicting of climate change and the way evidence is collected to establish patterns, together with a consideration of the choices humans have through which to respond to this. It was recognised that students were capable of considerable sophistication in generating networks of issues, and thus a curriculum could include significant learning of scientific concepts, investigative concepts, and the nature of science.

Emergence of science education The teaching within a science-related subject was beginning to be seen as separate from science as solely an academic pursuit. School science began to be seen as science education and this as a separate discipline from science – namely, science education. School science was seen as a balance between providing an academic background and enabling the learning to be meaningful for use within society. A context-based approach was considered. Scientific literacy became an important goal.

The Resilience of Traditional School Science Science education in school, however, has remained relatively traditional. The emphasis is put on: conceptual knowledge, grouped into distinct disciplinary strands, the use of key, abstract concepts to interpret and explain relatively standard problems; the treatment of context as mainly subsidiary to concepts, and the use of standard practical work to illustrate, or verify principles and practices.

Rejection of traditional school science The new movement was an attempt to counter-act traditional science education, attempt to reject: at both secondary and tertiary levels, the emphasis on the acquisition of interlinked structures of abstract accepted ideas, supported by assessment strategies focusing on students’ mastery of these ideas in ‘set- piece’ situations. These views were expressed in textbooks written by scientists (or those guided by scientists) with a strong tendency to reflect ‘yesterday’s’ science.

What is science education for? Reflections in the 21st century are striving to: Go beyond ‘science for the scientists’ versus ‘science for society.’ Include ‘education for employability’ and promoting interest in science-related careers plus the development of attributes for this. So where is the emphasis – a base for future studies; responsible citizen; preparation for a career?

Purposes of Science Education in the compulsory years Which is it? Or is it - all of these? A Cultural purpose A Democratic purpose An Economic purpose A Personal development purpose A Utilitarian purpose (Symington & Tytler, 2004, p. 1411)

Cultural purpose: all members of society develop an understanding of the scope of science and its application in contemporary culture. Democratic purpose: students develop a confidence about science which would enable them to be involved in scientific and technological issues as they impact on society. Economic purpose: the number and quality of people with strong backgrounds in science and technology in business and public life, as well as in science and technology, that are needed to secure the country’s future prosperity. Personal development purpose: all members of society benefit from the contribution that the values and skills of science can make to their ability to learn and operate successfully throughout life. Utilitarian purpose: all members of society have sufficient knowledge of science to enable them to operate effectively and critically in activities where science can make a contribution to their personal wellbeing (Symington & Tytler, 2004, p. 1411)

Positive view of science The earlier 5 areas of focus need not be contradictory. We can include a little of all !! However, the lack of concern with specific knowledge building and questions raised on the usefulness of particular knowledge over a life span, provides a challenge as to how we might think of knowledge within a scientific literacy oriented curriculum. (Symington & Tytler, 2004, p. 1415)

Challenging the Scientists’ views The scientists/industrialists, interviewed by Symington & Tytler, had a great deal to say about school science, which many participants regarded as representing an outdated and discipline- bound view of science. They argued for: A focus on lifelong learning aimed at future public attitudes through engaging students’ interest, rather than on knowledge structures aimed at the selection of future scientists. A focus on the processes, skills and scientific habits of mind (problem solving, reasoning with evidence, representing and interpreting data mathematically), on personal relevance and engagement, and on science within social and ethical contexts.

The Dilemma The dilemma, then, is how to balance the need to teach established scientific knowledge, with the need to represent science as it is practised or has value in contemporary settings. One approach is to select socially relevant, interdisciplinary topics, and then ‘weave scientific understanding and logic’ into the cultural, social, historical, social and ethical perspectives.

Teacher views It has been argued that the continuing resistance to curriculum change throughout the 20th century has largely been due to the allegiances of teachers, and to some extent the general public, to a version of science education as disciplinary knowledge and the development of expertise (the economic viewpoint). We need to remember that teachers’ professional identities are forged through their experiences from school and university science, with very few having practised science in a research or professional sense (Tytler, 2007).

For the future scientist Studies show (for all and even future scientists) the need to: communicate effectively to multiple audiences; be able to work in multi-disciplinary teams, having well-developed analytical thinking skills; understand the social and ethical context in which they work, and have developed the desire and ability to be lifelong learners.

In summary The trends in science education can be considered and further explored from: A science perspective (as a subject for learning) An educational perspective (the students learning needs)

Major Trends with respect to Science (as a vehicle for learning) From: To: Pure science knowledge e.g. properties of gas, definition of osmosis, or force, pressure, etc Relevance in everyday life e.g. why a preference for high voltage transmission lines in the electrical power industry Lower order learning with its emphasis on gaining information (memorising) and understanding More emphasis on higher order learning – analytical thinking, problem solving, making judgements Teacher centred approach to knowledge acquisition. Practical work, when undertaken, of the recipe type (like cookery) Teaching approached from inquiry and values-in-society perspective (largely student centred/investigative or through discussion) Science as a body of knowledge Science as a way of thinking & process - understanding the nature of science

Major Trends with respect to Education (and hence covering Science Education) From To Science taught to enable students to become scientists Science taught for use in society &/or for responsible citizenship Science emphasising “basic” or “fundamental” (19th Century?) cognitive concepts Increased emphasis on relevance, argumentation, working together, socio-scientific meta-cognition Science as an isolated school subject Inter-disciplinarity between school subjects (natural science and social science) - STEM !! STEAM !! Teacher centred approach, limited classroom feedback Student centred approaches for maximising student feedback and developing leadership/self-discipline Emphasis on summative tests and examinations (assessment of learning) More attention to formative on-going assessment (assessment for learning)

Have the 4 initial questions been answered? What influenced the beginning of science education in schools? How was science education initially perceived? How has that perception of science education changed? What is the perception of science education today?