Chapter 30 Striving for Independence

Indian Independence Movement , India’s population increased dramatically Environmental pressure, deforestation-declining farm land Society divided into classes: peasants, wealthy property owners, urban craftspeople, traders, workers Many languages; English common medium of communication of Western-educated middle class Majority practiced Hinduism Muslims about one-quarter of the population-majority in northwest & in eastern Bengal

British Rule & Indian Nationalism Colonial India ruled by viceroy & administered by Indian Civil Service Technology managed to mitigate dangers of industrialization, prevent development of radical politics, & maximize benefits to Britain & Civil Service At turn of century, most Indians accepted British rule, but racism & discrimination inspired group of Hindus to establish Indian National Congress Muslims, fearful of Hindu dominance, founded All-India Muslim League in 1906 Two independence movements

British Rule & Indian Nationalism British resisted India’s efforts to industrialize India’s first steel mill established in 1911 symbol of national pride , tensions increased between Brits & Indians promises of self-government were vague Amritsar Massacre-British general ordered troops to fire into a crowd of 10,000 demonstrators

Mahatma Gandhi & Militant Nonviolence English educated lawyer- practiced in South Africa then returned to India & joined Indian National Congress Political ideas included ahimsa (nonviolence) & satyagraha (search for truth) Moved political efforts from elite to masses

India Moves Toward Independence In 1920s, Indians controlled education, economy, & public works Business people looked to Gandhi’s successor Jawaharlal Nehru (1889– 1964)—for leadership World War II divided the Indian people; Indians contributed heavily to war effort, but Indian National Congress opposed war, & minority of Indians joined Japanese side

Partition & Independence In 1940, Muslim League’s leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah, demanded country for Muslims After World War II, Britain’s new Labour Party government prepared for independence Mutual animosity between Indian National Congress & Muslim League led to partition of India into two states: India & Pakistan Violence & massive disruption followed as Hindus left predominantly Muslim areas & Muslims left predominantly Hindu areas

Sub-Saharan Africa, 1900–1945 Colonial Africa: Economic & Social Changes Outside Algeria, Kenya, & South Africa, few Europeans lived in Africa Africa exported raw materials-few Africans benefitted Africans forced to work in European-owned mines & plantations under harsh conditions for little or no pay Colonialism provided little modern health care Colonial policies worsened public health, undermined African family, & gave rise to large cities & racial discrimination.

Religious & Political Changes During colonial period, many Africans turned to Christianity or Islam Missionaries introduced Christianity (except in Ethiopia, where it was indigenous) Islam spread through influence & example of African traders Contrast between liberal ideas imparted by Western education & realities of racial discrimination contributed to rise of nationalism

Background to Revolution: Mexico in 1910 Independence Mexican society deeply divided-few wealthy families-majority poor peasants Concentration of land ownership increased after independence In 1910, General Porfirio Diaz ruled for thirty-four years Mexico City modernized showplace brought wealth to few businessmen discrimination against nonwhite majority & average Mexican’s standard of living declined

Revolution and Civil War in Mexico, 1911–1920 Mexican Revolution haphazard social revolution Leaders represented different segments of society Madero overthrew Diaz in 1911, then overthrown by Huerta in 1913 Constitutionalists Carranza & Obregon led disaffected middle class & industrial workers Organized armies that overthrew Huerta in 1914

Mexican Revolution Zapata led peasant revolt Pancho Villa organized army in northern Mexico Neither able to lead national revolution Zapata defeated & killed by Constitutionalists in 1919 Villa assassinated in 1923

Revolution and Civil War in Mexico, 1911–1920 Constitutionalists took over Mexico after years of fighting, 2 million casualties, & tremendous damage Adopted agrarian reforms – proposed social programs designed to appeal to workers & middle class Mexican Revolution lost momentum in 1920s In 1928, National Revolutionary Party founded Cardenas, removed generals from government, redistributed land, replaced church-run schools with government schools, & expropriated foreign-owned oil companies When Cardenas’s term ended in 1940, Mexico still land of poor farmers-small industrial base Mexican Revolution established stable political system, tamed military & Catholic Church, & laid foundations for later industrialization of Mexico Revolution sparked new creativity in arts

Transformation of Argentina At end of 19th century, railroads & refrigerators allowed Argentina to become major exporter of meat Pampas transformed into great producer of meat & wheat Government represented interests of oligarquia, small group of wealthy landowners Only cared about farming Foreign companies built railroads, processing plants & public utilities Exported agricultural goods Imported manufactured goods

Brazil & Argentina, to 1929 Brazil’s elite coffee & cacao planters & rubber exporters resembled Argentine elite – used wealth to support lavish lifestyle – allowed British to build railroads, harbors – imported all manufactured goods Both Argentina & Brazil had small but outspoken middle classes-demanded share in government-looked to Europe as model Disruption of European industry & world trade in World War I weakened land-owning classes in Argentina & Brazil Urban middle class & wealthy landowners shared power at expense of landless peasants & urban workers During 1920s, peace & high prices for agricultural exports allowed both Argentina & Brazil to industrialize introduction of new technologies left them dependent on advanced industrial countries Aviation & radio communications introduced during 1920s, but European & U.S. companies dominated both sectors

The Depression & Vargas Regime in Brazil Depression hit Latin America very hard- significant turning point for region As value of exports plummeted & economies collapsed, Argentina & Brazil, turned to authoritarian regimes In Brazil, Vargas staged a coup & followed a policy that increased import duties & promoted national firms & state-owned enterprises Industrialization brought usual environmental consequences: mines, urbanization, slums, conversion of scrubland to pasture, & deforestation Vargas instituted reforms that benefited urban workers-did nothing to help landless peasants Economic recovery was unequally distributed In 1938, Vargas staged a second coup, abolished constitution, made Brazil a fascist state & created precedence of political violence Overthrown in a military coup in 1954

Argentina After 1930 Depression hurt Argentina-political consequences delayed for years In 1930, General Jose Uriburu overthrew popularly elected president & initiated thirteen years of rule by generals & oligarquia In 1943, Colonel Juan Peron led another coup-modeled government on Germany’s Nazi regime As World War II turned against Nazis, Peron & his wife Eva Duarte Peron appealed to urban workers Created new base of support-allowed Peron to win presidency & established populist dictatorship Sponsored rapid industrialization-spent lavishly on social welfare projects Peron unable to create stable government-after his wife died in overthrown in military coup

Conclusion Politics and Economics under Imperialism Peoples of sub-Saharan Africa & India remained under colonial rule after war Elites worked toward independence-ordinary people wanted social justice Though politically independent, Mexico, Argentina, & Brazil economically tied to industrializing nations Argentina & Brazil moved toward economic independence but fell victim to social unrest, militarism & dictatorship in the process

Conclusion: The Problems of Independence India gained independence from colonial rule, but was torn apart by ethnic conflict Desire for independence did not always unite people against colonial rulers because of social, ethnic, & religious divisions within their populations