©2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Integrity Testing, Drug Testing, and Graphology Part 5Predictors of Job Performance CHAPTER 14

Integrity Testing Why worry about employee dishonesty?Why worry about employee dishonesty?  Pressure to remain cost-competitive in a global marketplace  Wide differences in perceptions of the extent of employee theft 14–2 © 2008 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.

Polygraph Testing Polygraph (lie detector)Polygraph (lie detector)  A machine that measures the physiological responses of an individual that accompany the verbal responses the individual makes to questioning by a polygraph operator.  The physiological responses and the operator’s opinion are used to evaluate the individual’s truthfulness in responding to the questions. 14–3 © 2008 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.

Employee Polygraph Protection Act (1988) Made it illegal in selection (with the exception of specific circumstances) to:Made it illegal in selection (with the exception of specific circumstances) to: 1. Directly or indirectly require, request, suggest, or cause any employee to take or submit to any lie detector test to render a diagnostic opinion about the honesty of an individual 2. Use, accept, refer to, or inquire about the results of any lie detector test of any job applicant or current employee 3. Discharge, discipline, discriminate against, or deny employment or promotion to (or threaten to take such adverse action against) any prospective or current employee who refuses, declines, or fails to take or submit to a lie detector test 14–4 © 2008 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.

Permissible Uses of the Polygraph By Specific EmployersBy Specific Employers  Private employers providing security services.  Manufacturers, distributors, or dispensers of controlled substances.  Federal, state, and local government employers. Under Specific Testing ConditionsUnder Specific Testing Conditions  Workplace theft or other incident has occurred that resulted in an economic loss to the company.  Employee must have had access to the property that is the subject of the investigation.  “Reasonable suspicion” that the employee was involved in the incident.  Employee has been given specific written information about the incident being investigated and the reasons for the testing. 14–5 © 2008 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.

Limitations of Polygraph Testing Influence of reactions other than guilt on examinee responsesInfluence of reactions other than guilt on examinee responses Variations in the levels of examinee lability (autonomic threshold)Variations in the levels of examinee lability (autonomic threshold) Use of countermeasures by examineesUse of countermeasures by examinees High frequencies of false positive and false negative test resultsHigh frequencies of false positive and false negative test results Certification of examiner qualificationsCertification of examiner qualifications 14–6 © 2008 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.

Paper-and-Pencil Integrity Tests Types of Integrity TestsTypes of Integrity Tests  Overt integrity tests  Directly ask for information about attitudes toward theft and the occurrence of previous theft behaviors.  Personality-based measures  Do not ask about theft behaviors directly.  Inventory traits linked to several related employee behaviors that are detrimental to the organization. Social Implications of Integrity Test ResultsSocial Implications of Integrity Test Results  Respondents’ view of integrity versus personality 14–7 © 2008 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.

Who Steals? “Typical” Employee-Thief“Typical” Employee-Thief  is more tempted to steal  engages in many of the common rationalizations for theft  would punish thieves less  often thinks about theft-related activities  attributes more theft to others  shows more inter-thief loyalty  is more vulnerable to peer pressure to steal than is an honest employee. 14–8 © 2008 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.

Personality-Based Measures Integrity Scale AssumptionsIntegrity Scale Assumptions  Employee theft is just one element in a larger syndrome of antisocial behavior or organizational delinquency.  Common personality patterns can be identified through the use of personality inventories.  Scale items are not transparent which reduces fake responses by respondents  Individuals are rejected due to their personality profile mismatch to successful employees rather than for failing an integrity test. 14–9 © 2008 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.

14–10 © 2008 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved. Primary Scales Adjustment—Self-confidence, self-esteem, and composure under pressure Ambition—Initiative, competitiveness, and the desire for leadership roles Sociability—Extraversion, gregariousness, and a need for social interaction Interpersonal Sensitivity—Warmth, charm, and the ability to maintain relationships Prudence—Self-discipline, responsibility, and conscientiousness Inquisitiveness—Imagination, curiosity, vision, and creative potential Learning Approach—Enjoying learning, staying current on business and technical matters Occupational Scales Service Orientation—Being attentive, pleasant, and courteous to customers Stress Tolerance—Being able to handle stress, being even-tempered and calm under fire Reliability—Honesty, integrity, and positive organizational citizenship Clerical Potential—Following directions, attending to detail, and communicating clearly Sales Potential—Energy, social skills, and the ability to solve customers’ problems Managerial Potential—Leadership ability, planning, and decision-making skills SOURCE: Performance Programs, Inc. ( TABLE 14.1Scales of the Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI)

14–11 © 2008 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved. Job Negative Behaviors That Are Correlated Positive Behaviors That Are Correlated Truck driverDischarges from work Grievances filed Claims for equipment failure Commendations Psychiatric counselorSupervisor’s ratings of performance Hospital service workerTimes counseled for aberrant behavior Rehabilitation therapistInjuries sustained Incidents reported to insurance fund State dollars spent for treatment Nuclear power plant workerSupervisor’s ratings of attitude, accuracy, punctuality Service operations dispatchersAbsences Navy electronics studentsCourse time completion Customer service representativesSupervisor’s ratings of quality, teamwork, performance TelemarketersSales performance Sales lead generation SOURCE: Based on Joyce Hogan and Robert Hogan, “How to Measure Employee Reliability,” in Employee Testing: The Complete Resource Guide (Washington, DC: Bureau of National Affairs, Inc., 1988). TABLE 14.2Criteria Measures Correlated with Employee Reliability Index

Usefulness and Validity of Integrity Tests IssuesIssues  Occurrence of false positives  Setting cutoff scores to avoid false negatives  Empirical validity  Problems of measuring a criterion variable  What the tests are measuring  Correlation with the Big Five personality dimensions  Correlation of overt and personality-based integrity tests  The magnitude of fakability by respondents  Distortion is measured at the group-level; however selection decisions and distortion occur at the individual-level. 14–12 © 2008 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.

Drug Testing Issues in Drug Use MeasurementIssues in Drug Use Measurement  Distinctions related to use (levels and frequencies of consumption) and impairment (deterioration in performance) Drug use varies by:Drug use varies by:  Occupation  Gender  Age  Education 14–13 © 2008 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.

Types of Drug Tests Paper-and-Pencil TestsPaper-and-Pencil Tests  Resemble paper-and-pencil integrity tests  Limited by prohibition on self-incrimination Urine TestsUrine Tests  Require screening and confirmation tests  Results are dependent on threshold level set Hair AnalysisHair Analysis  Requires screening and confirmation tests  Allows for longer detection periods 14–14 © 2008 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.

Types of Drug Tests (cont’d) Fitness-for-Duty (Competency) TestsFitness-for-Duty (Competency) Tests  Compares an individual’s response times and accuracy while operating a computer game to the individual’s previous scores on the game. Oral Fluid TestOral Fluid Test  Oral swab taken from inside of individual’s mouth is analyzed for presence of drugs. 14–15 © 2008 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.

Accuracy of Chemical Tests IssuesIssues  Detection of drug does not determine:  Amount used  Frequency of use  Time passed since use  Impairment of the individual  Reasonableness of threshold for detection 14–16 © 2008 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.

Legal Issues in Employment Drug Testing Major legal questions about drug testing:Major legal questions about drug testing: 1. Testing represents an invasion of privacy.  Confidentially of test results is the principle concern. 2. Testing constitutes an unreasonable search and seizure.  Nexus of testing and workplace problems is required. 3. Testing is a violation of due process.  Validity of results represents due process. 4. Drug users are protected under the Americans with Disabilities Act.  Former, but not active drug users, are covered by the ADA. 14–17 © 2008 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.

Legal Issues in Employment Drug Testing Major legal questions about drug testing:Major legal questions about drug testing: 5. Testing may violate the Civil Rights Act.  If testing is job-related, it is permissible. 6. Testing may violate the National Labor Relations Act.  Testing is a working condition that is subject to collective bargaining.  Employers generally cannot unilaterally institute testing.  Disciplinary actions resulting from testing are subject to arbitration. 14–18 © 2008 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.

Acceptance of Drug Testing Programs Drug testing is accepted when:Drug testing is accepted when:  An advance warning of the testing is given  Rehabilitation rather than termination is when the presence of drugs is detected  There are fair detection procedures and explanation of results  There is a perceived need for testing.  Either urinalysis or overt paper-and-pencil tests are used rather than a personality inventory. 14–19 © 2008 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.

Guidelines for Drug Testing Programs Limit testing to positions that have major safety implications or a history of poor performance in specific areas linked to drug usage.Limit testing to positions that have major safety implications or a history of poor performance in specific areas linked to drug usage. Use both screening and confirmatory tests.Use both screening and confirmatory tests. Obtain written consent before testing and provide the test results afterward.Obtain written consent before testing and provide the test results afterward. Test all individuals in the same job status.Test all individuals in the same job status. Ensure that privacy is afforded to individuals being tested.Ensure that privacy is afforded to individuals being tested. Include education, counseling, and assistance as part of the testing program.Include education, counseling, and assistance as part of the testing program. 14–20 © 2008 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.

Graphology GraphologyGraphology  The analysis of the handwriting of an individual in order to infer personality traits and behavioral tendencies. GraphologistGraphologist  The individual who performs the analysis of handwriting features:  Size of letters, slant, width, zones (top, middle, and bottom), regularity of letter formation, margin, pressure, stroke, line of letters (upward, straight, downward), connections of letters, form of connection, and word and line spacing. 14–21 © 2008 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.

14–22 © 2008 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved. FIGURE 14.1Some Examples of Handwriting Features and Their Interpretation

Key Terms and Concepts Integrity Polygraph Employee Polygraph Protection Act (1988) Lability Paper-and-pencil integrity tests Overt integrity tests Personality-based measures Integrity scale False positives False negatives Faking Drug tests Urine tests Hair analysis Fitness-for-duty tests Oral fluid tests Graphology 14–23 © 2008 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.