Sea Power and Maritime Affairs Lesson 6: The United States Navy, : The Search for Professionalism

Period of Expansion Monroe Doctrine – 1823 Manifest Destiny – Westward expansion Increased immigration from Europe Naval developments reflected industrial and scientific revolutions

Reorganization of the Navy Postwar Navy increases in size – Pride and professionalism SECNAV calls for “Board of Commissioners” – Civilian secretary needs help managing larger Navy Primary mission of the Navy = “Gunboat Diplomacy” – Protect rapidly expanding U. S. commercial interests overseas - “Showing the flag” Naval Warfighting Doctrine – Focus on Commerce Raiding - “Guerre de Course” – Command of the sea: de-emphasized – Coastal defense - Army forts constructed at entrances to ports

Board of Commissioners Three senior Captains (Hull, Porter, Rodgers; Bainbridge and Decatur later) Formed to assist in following areas: – Logistical responsibilities – Advising ship deployments – Assist SECNAV in deployment of forces and personnel

Permanent Overseas Squadrons With increased strength, able to maintain multiple squadrons abroad: – Mediterranean Squadron – West Indies Squadron – Brazil Squadron – Pacific Squadron – East Indies Squadron – African Squadron

Permanent U.S. Navy Squadrons

Mediterranean Squadron Revived to deal with Barbary corsairs – Capturing of American merchantmen – U.S. declared war on Algiers in 1812 – Decatur convinced Dey of Algiers and pasha of Tripoli and Tunis that U.S. would not pay any more tribute; would not be subject to piracy Implementing foreign policy abroad! Leased island of Minorca until Civil War Considered most favorable assignment

West Indies Squadron Created to protect shipping against piracy – Mexico, Venezuela and Colombia revolt against Spain while Cuba and Puerto Rico remain loyal James Biddle first commander; David Porter successful in raiding pirate’s havens in Cuba with shallow draft vessels 1824 Fajardo incident: Porter vs. Puerto Rico By 1841, with its mission complete, the squadron was absorbed into home squadron

Other Squadrons Brazil Squadron – Formed to assist South American countries fighting Spain’s Squadron and to prevent seizure of U.S. ships – Enforcing Monroe Doctrine Pacific Squadron – Support diplomatic efforts with Argentina and Chile – Recover captured U.S. ships

Other Squadrons East Indies Squadron – Protect expanding U.S. trade in Asia – Pirates in Sumatra, 1838 – American merchantmen slaughtered – Obtain “most favored nation” status with China African Squadron – Formed with Britain in order to suppress the slave trade

LT Wilkes Expedition, Squadron of 6 vessels Gathered significant amount of scientific knowledge Charted Fiji, Samoa, Gilberts, Antarctica, and North American West and Northwest Coast The expedition recognized the strategic and trade importance of San Francisco and whole West Coast Natural science collections became basis of Smithsonian Institute collections Brought Navy favorable publicity

The “Wilkes Expedition”

LT Matthew F. Maury Naval Oceanographer “Pathfinder of Seas” He studied old logs and compiled the data – Allowed preparation of detailed charts He determined the best routes for maximum speeds & optimum conditions Cut New York to San Francisco route by 47 days

The “Bureau System” Secretary of the Navy Abel P. Upshur – Proponent of expansion, modernization, and reform. Five “bureaus” established to replace the Board of Commissioners in – Bureau of Navy Yards and Docks – Bureau of Ordnance and Hydrography – Bureau of Construction, Equipment, and Repair – Bureau of Medicine and Surgery – Bureau of Provisions and Clothing

Problems in Navy Rough, ignorant sailors – Disciplined by fear – Flogging common; chief reward  grog Stagnation in officer corps – Heroes of 1812 filled top positions – Dueling common Inadequate training – First MIDN summer cruise 1824

United States Naval Academy Problems with training of midshipmen – Navy more technologically advanced – Enhanced “screening” process required, extend training United States Military Academy at West Point – Highly successful in training Army officers Naval School at Philadelphia, later moves the school to Annapolis – First Superintendent: Franklin Buchanan Renamed Naval Academy in 1850 – Gradually expanded from 6 months to 1 year and later to 4 years

The Mexican American War Due to Westward expansion: – Texas became part of U.S. upon their request – Independence 1836, annexed 1845, statehood 1846 – Border dispute with Mexico (Nueces vs. Rio Grande) U.S. annexed California and New Mexico – Not recognized by Mexico 1846 declaration of war with Mexico

“We have tried every effort at reconciliation… But now, after reiterated menaces, Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States (Rio Grande), has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon American soil…. The two nations are at war.”

Mexican-American War General Zachary Taylor – Operations against Mexican Army in Texas – 1846 Pacific Squadron under Commodore John Sloat. – Monterey and San Francisco captured by joint American forces - Army, Navy, and Marine Corps. – Commodore Robert Stockton - Los Angeles. – California and Oregon occupied by the end of the war.

Gulf of Mexico U.S. Navy establishes command of the sea – Blockade and capture of Mexican ports – Marines used as a garrison force Combined Army-Navy operations at Vera Cruz – Home Squadron under Commodore M.C. Perry – Amphibious landing including Marines General Winfield Scott marches to Mexico City – Accompanied by a regiment of Marines Marines in the Battle of Chapultepec – “The Halls of Montezuma” Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo – Rio Grande established as Texas-Mexico border – Western United States ceded from Mexico ($15M)

Battle of Vera Cruz

U.S. Navy Expedition to Japan Acquisition of California and Oregon – U.S. is now a power in the Pacific Ocean Japan – Island nation closed to foreign influence Commodore M.C. Perry – U.S. Navy squadron to Japan – Returns to Tokyo Bay Treaty of Kanagawa – Protection of American seamen – Two ports opened to American shipping

Technological Developments New blood officers experimented with new technology & methods; M.C. Perry, Maury, Stockton Advancements were made in the areas of: – Steam Propulsion – Gunnery – Armor

Industrial Revolution Affects naval technology: PropulsionSailto Steam ArmorWoodto Iron WeaponsSolid Shotto Shell

Technological Developments Steam Propulsion Maury and M.C. Perry: leading advocates of steam propulsion In 1842 the Mississippi and Missouri were completed; steam-powered, wooden-hulled, paddlewheelers which gave the US an early lead in steam.

Technological Developments Steam Propulsion Advantages/Disadvantages Increased mobility Inefficient engines and fuel now had to be carried Paddlewheels were inefficient Commercial ships made the greatest strides in steam. Demologous – First steam ship warship – Robert Fulton

Technological Developments Fulton II, 1837 – Second U.S. steamship. – Perry used this ship & convinced Congress to advocate the use of steam – Commissioned 3,220 ton Mississippi and Missouri Princeton, 1842 – Screw propeller designed by Smith (England) and Ericcson (Sweden) – Oversaw construction of first screw driven warship. – The screw driven warship was soon deemed superior to the paddlewheel  France and England follow suit with Napoleon and Agamemnon – US launches the Merrimack class fast screw frigate

Crimean War Russian invasion of Ottoman Empire in Europe Battle of Sinop – Russian fleet annihilates Turkish fleet by use of shell fire – Proves wooden-hulled ships are obsolete -- unable to withstand explosive shell fire Great Britain and France allied with Ottoman Turks Sevastopol Campaign – Sailing ships inadequate compared to steam ships for maneuver – Importance of proper planning and coordination of amphibious assaults Kinburn – Ironclad (17” wooden hulls with 4.5” iron plates) armor on French ships used for protection  ushered in age of armor

Armor French ironclad frigate Gloire – 36 guns in broadside – 5,600-tons displacement – Wooden hull with iron armor plating 4.75” thick British ironclad battleship Warrior – 40 guns in broadside – 9,000-tons displacement – Iron hull with iron armor plating Discovered wood was too weak and constructed hull entirely of iron – First “modern” warship -- sometimes referred to as first battleship – Marked the end of wooden warship era

HMS Warrior Portsmouth, England First “Modern” Warship Ushered in era of the Battleship

Ordnance Primary weapon was still cast-iron, smoothbore, solid-shot muzzle loader, yds USS Princeton ordnance demonstration – Ericcson’s “Oregon” and Stockton’s “Peacemaker” – “Peacemaker” improperly reinforced, subsequent explosion kills six, including the Secretary of State and the Secretary of the Navy – U.S. naval ordnance development suspended John Dahlgren -- “Father of Modern Naval Ordnance” – “Dahlgren Gun” ’s Nine inch shell gun, mounted on Merrimack class frigates – Bore is smooth - still inaccurate at longer ranges – Based on curvature of gun shaft creating pressures from expanding gas that originated from gunpowder – Experiments with “rifled” cannon begin

Ordnance Built-up gun barrel replaces Dahlgren gun Development of gun turret to protect gunners  Monitor Enhancement of shell shot Attempts at rifling produced intense pressures that cannon could not withstand

John Dahlgren Father of Modern Naval Ordnance

The “Peacemaker”

Conclusion: Period of territorial and commercial expansion Navy grew in earlier years, but professionalism and technology remained relatively stagnant after 1850 This was time of relative peace throughout period – U.S. held defensive and isolationist policy in relation to Europe. – People lost interest in the Navy over the years – Sectional division over slavery paralyzed naval development

Conclusion: Heading into the Civil war the Navy unprepared once again in 1860 – Ships were still mostly sail and even steamships used sail--the propeller was mostly for auxiliary power, 8-10 knots max. speed. – There were few new weapons – The fleet was also small and aging However, tradition of global support of commercial expansion – Porter in Caribbean – Wilkes’ exploration – Maury’s contributions to navigation – Overseas squadrons – Perry in Japan

Next time: The Civil War, ch 12-14