Catherine Wishart Adjunct Instructor

 Studies the systems of relationships that are embedded in words and items, “and shows us the ways in which we think” (Guerin 369).  Acknowledges the arbitrariness of assigning certain series of letters to represent specific ideas.  Focuses on the opposites that often appear in literary constructs.

 Ferdinand de Saussure, professor at University of Geneva, Switzerland, developed structural linguistics between 1906 and  This approach attempts to study literature from an objective perspective.  Looks at the surface structure of the text.  Claude Levi-Strauss introduced the binary approach to structuralism.  Studying opposites and how they interplay in the text.

 Levi-Strauss wrote Structural Anthropology in 1950s.  He closely examined paired opposites (binary oppositions) that creep into works – sometimes intentionally, and sometime unintentionally.  He also closely examined double entendres, statements that could be interpreted in two different ways.  Example: in “Young Goodman Brown,” Brown laments, “My Faith is gone!” This can be interpreted as his wife (note the capital letter for Faith), or it can be interpreted as his religious faith.  Searching texts for binary oppositions, or paired opposites, is a practical method of applying structuralist analysis to a literary work.

 Fairy Tales: Cinderella  Cinderella is pretty, while step-sisters are ugly  Cinderella is penniless, while step-sisters have money  Cinderella is good, while step-sisters are evil  Loses one slipper, but keeps the other  Cinderella has a complete reversal of fortune, as do her step-sisters. (DiYanni 1584)

 “There are combinations of very simple natural objects which have the power of thus affecting us” (150). Objects can stand for something else in our mind.  “mansion of gloom” (150). Opposite imagery juxtaposed in the same sentence. Mansions are normally viewed as beautiful, impressive. Gloom is the antithesis of a mansion.  Opposites of narrator knowing Roderick as a boy and now they are adults.  The study is lofty with black oaken floors. Contrary imagery.  While the furniture is tattered, there are still servants.  Complete change in Usher’s appearance – reversal.  “His action was alternatively vivacious and sullen” (152). Binary opposites.  Poetry embedded in prose.

 The sequence of events from beginning to end  The rearrangement of the narrative to build suspense or for aesthetic effects (The death of Tessie in “The Lottery”)  Flashbacks  Unequal treatment of time  Shifts in viewpoints or speakers

 Codes developed by Barthes: 1. The code of actions asks the reader to find meaning in the sequence of events. 2. The code of puzzles raises questions to be answered. 3. The cultural code refers to all systems of “knowledge and values invoked by a text.” 4. The connotative code expresses themes developed around the characters. 5. The symbolic code refers to the theme as we have generally considered it, that is, the meaning of the work. (Guerin 375).

 Structuralist Theory was the basis for Formalist Theory.  Structuralist Theory is used by important French philosophers:  Rationalists:  Voltaire  Jean-Paul Sartre  French terminology is often used in Structuralism.

1. What are the elements of the work – words, stanzas, chapters, parts, for example – and how can these be seen as revealing “difference”? 2. How do the characters, narrators, speakers, or other voices heard in the work reveal difference? 3. How do the elements of the work’s plot or overall action suggest a meaningful pattern? What changes, adjustments, transformations, shifts of tone, attitude, behavior, or feeling do you find? 4. How are the work’s primary images and events related to one another? What elements of differentiation exist, and what do they signify? 5. What system of relations could be used to link this work with others of its kind? 6. What system of relations could be used to link this work with others of its kind? What system of relations could be used to link this work with different kinds of things with which it shared some similarities? (DiYanni 1585)

 DiYanni, Robert. Literature Approaches to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Boston: McGraw- Hill, Print.  Guerin, Wilfred L., Labor, Earle, Morgan, Lee, Reesman, Jeanne C., and Willingham, John R. A Handbook of Critical Approaches to Literature. 5 th ed. NY: Oxford UP, Print.