Utilizing your notes and past knowledge answer the following questions: 1) Define load factor. 2) Describe the two reasons for understanding load factors. 3) Define the “factor of safety.” 4) Describe the three categories of safe load factors and the associated limit load factors. 5) Describe the load factor (G forces) in 60 degree and 80 degree banks. Warm-Up – 12/9 – 10 minutes

Questions / Comments

Utilizing your notes and past knowledge answer the following questions: 1) Define load factor. 2) Describe the two reasons for understanding load factors. 3) Define the “factor of safety.” 4) Describe the three categories of safe load factors and the associated limit load factors. 5) Describe the load factor (G forces) in 60 degree and 80 degree banks. Warm-Up – 12/9 – 10 minutes

Load Factors Load factor is the ratio of the maximum load an aircraft can sustain to the gross weight of the aircraft.

Utilizing your notes and past knowledge answer the following questions: 1) Define load factor. 2) Describe the two reasons for understanding load factors. 3) Define the “factor of safety.” 4) Describe the three categories of safe load factors and the associated limit load factors. 5) Describe the load factor (G forces) in 60 degree and 80 degree banks. Warm-Up – 12/9 – 10 minutes

Load Factors A knowledge of load factors is important for two reasons: 1. It is possible for a pilot to impose a dangerous overload on the aircraft structures. 2. An increased load factor increases the stalling speed and makes stalls possible at seemingly safe flight speeds.

Utilizing your notes and past knowledge answer the following questions: 1) Define load factor. 2) Describe the two reasons for understanding load factors. 3) Define the “factor of safety.” 4) Describe the three categories of safe load factors and the associated limit load factors. 5) Describe the load factor (G forces) in 60 degree and 80 degree banks. Warm-Up – 12/9 – 10 minutes

Load Factors This 1.5 load limit factor is called the “factor of safety” and provides, to some extent, for loads higher than those expected under normal and reasonable operation.

Utilizing your notes and past knowledge answer the following questions: 1) Define load factor. 2) Describe the two reasons for understanding load factors. 3) Define the “factor of safety.” 4) Describe the three categories of safe load factors and the associated limit load factors. 5) Describe the load factor (G forces) in 60 degree and 80 degree banks. Warm-Up – 12/9 – 10 minutes

Structure Load Factors The maximum safe load factors (limit load factors) specified for aircraft in the various categories are: CATEGORY LIMIT LOAD FACTOR Normal 3.8 to –1.52 Utility 4.4 to –1.76 (mild acrobatics, including spins) Acrobatic 6.0 to –3.00 There is an upward graduation in load factor with the increasing severity of maneuvers.

Utilizing your notes and past knowledge answer the following questions: 1) Define load factor. 2) Describe the two reasons for understanding load factors. 3) Define the “factor of safety.” 4) Describe the three categories of safe load factors and the associated limit load factors. 5) Describe the load factor (G forces) in 60 degree and 80 degree banks. Warm-Up – 12/9 – 10 minutes

Load Factors in Steep Turns The load factor for any aircraft in a 60° bank is 2 Gs. The load factor in an 80° bank is 5.76 Gs. The wing must produce lift equal to these load factors if altitude is to be maintained.

Questions / Comments

 December 9  1904 — The Wright brothers discontinue trials with “Flyer II” after completing 105 tests and 80 brief flights since they began flying the new machine in May. THIS DAY IN AVIATION

 December — American Dr. Henry W. Walden makes the first flight with his triplane known as the “Walden III.” It is powered by a three- cylinder, 22-hp Anzani engine and takes off from Mineola, Long Island, New York. THIS DAY IN AVIATION

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SUNDAYMONDAYTUESDAYWEDNESDAYTHURSDAYFRIDAYSATURDAY 123 Chapter 4 Torque 45 Chapter 4 Load Factors Chapter 4 Load Factors / Stalling Speeds 1011 Chapter Chapter 4 Test Flightline Friday Chapter Chapter NO SCHOOL 24 NO SCHOOL 25 NO SCHOOL 26 NO SCHOOL 27 NO SCHOOL NO SCHOOL 31 NO SCHOOL December 2013

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Chapter 4 – Aerodynamics of Flight FAA – Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

 Mission:  Identify in writing the forces acting on an aircraft in flight.  Describe how the forces of flight work and how to control them with the use of power and flight controls essential to flight.  Describe in writing how design, weight, load factors, and gravity affect an aircraft during flight maneuvers.  EQ: Describe the importance of Aeronautical Knowledge for the student pilot learning to fly. Today’s Mission Requirements

Load Factors and Stalling Speeds Any aircraft, within the limits of its structure, may be stalled at any airspeed.

Load Factors and Stalling Speeds When a sufficiently high AOA is imposed, the smooth flow of air over an airfoil breaks up and separates, producing an abrupt change of flight characteristics and a sudden loss of lift, which results in a stall.

Load Factors and Stalling Speeds A study of this effect has revealed that the aircraft’s stalling speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor.

Load Factors and Stalling Speeds This means that an aircraft with a normal unaccelerated stalling speed of 50 knots can be stalled at 100 knots by inducing a load factor of 4 Gs

Load Factors and Stalling Speeds The maximum speed at which an aircraft may be stalled safely is now determined for all new designs. This speed is called the “design maneuvering speed” (VA).

Design Maneuvering Speed

Load Factors and Stalling Speeds Load factors can be judged by the experienced pilot from the feel of seat pressure. Load factors can also be measured by an instrument called an “accelerometer,” but this instrument is not common in general aviation training aircraft.

Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers High Speed Stalls The only way this stall can be induced at an airspeed above normal stalling with an added load factor, which may be accomplished by a severe pull on the elevator control.

Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers Rough Air All standard certificated aircraft are designed to withstand loads imposed by gusts of considerable intensity. In extremely rough air it is wise to reduce the speed to the design maneuvering speed.

Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers The limit load is a force applied to an aircraft that causes a bending of the aircraft structure that does not return to the original shape.

Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers The ultimate load is the load factor applied to the aircraft beyond the limit load and at which point the aircraft material experiences structural failure (breakage).

Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers Speeds up to but not exceeding the maneuvering speed allows an aircraft to stall prior to experiencing an increase in load factor that would exceed the limit load of the aircraft.

Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers It is important for the pilot to remember that the maximum “never- exceed” placard dive speeds are determined for smooth air only.

Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers High speed dives or acrobatics involving speed above the known maneuvering speed should never be practiced in rough or turbulent air.

Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers Any airspeed greater than this provides a positive lift capability sufficient to damage the aircraft.

Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers Conversely, any airspeed less than this does not provide positive lift capability sufficient to cause damage from excessive flight loads. The usual term given to this speed is “maneuvering speed.”

Questions / Comments

Lesson Closure - 3 – List 3 things you learned today. 1. Create (1) quiz question with answer about today’s lesson. 2. List 2 things you have questions about today’s lesson.