From Qualitative to Quantitative Menken, K, & Tatyana, K. (2009) The long-term impact of subtractive schooling in the educational experiences of secondary. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. 14, 4. pp DOI: / URL: Menken, K, & Tatyana, K. (2009) The long-term impact of subtractive schooling in the educational experiences of secondary. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. 14, 4. pp DOI: / URL:

The Purpose of this Study / This article shares findings about the language and literacy usage of Long-term English Language Learners in New York City and analyzes their past and present educational programming while in the USA. / (We) argue in this article that the overwhelming emphasis on English in the students’ schooling in the USA- over native language development and biliteracy-- is a significant contributing factor to the length of time it takes them to acquire academic English, and particularly to develop literacy skills. (p ) / This article shares findings about the language and literacy usage of Long-term English Language Learners in New York City and analyzes their past and present educational programming while in the USA. / (We) argue in this article that the overwhelming emphasis on English in the students’ schooling in the USA- over native language development and biliteracy-- is a significant contributing factor to the length of time it takes them to acquire academic English, and particularly to develop literacy skills. (p )

Research Questions / 1 (a) What are the past and present educational experiences of (Long Term English Language Learners) LTELLs in US schools? / (b) To what extent are the services they receive(d) well-matched to their specific educational needs? / (2) What are the language and literacy preferences and abilities of LTELLS, both in English and their native language(s)? (p.403) / 1 (a) What are the past and present educational experiences of (Long Term English Language Learners) LTELLs in US schools? / (b) To what extent are the services they receive(d) well-matched to their specific educational needs? / (2) What are the language and literacy preferences and abilities of LTELLS, both in English and their native language(s)? (p.403)

Population / 29 LTELL students, five school administrators, four teachers who work with LTELLS in three New York City (NYC) high schools. The 29 LTELLs are in Grades 9-12, range in age from 25 to 19 years old, and have been in the USA for an average of 10 years. / The majority are Spanish speakers, which matches citywide demographics for ELLs, though the student participants included speakers of other languages, such as Twi, Garífuna, and Mandarin. (p.404) / 29 LTELL students, five school administrators, four teachers who work with LTELLS in three New York City (NYC) high schools. The 29 LTELLs are in Grades 9-12, range in age from 25 to 19 years old, and have been in the USA for an average of 10 years. / The majority are Spanish speakers, which matches citywide demographics for ELLs, though the student participants included speakers of other languages, such as Twi, Garífuna, and Mandarin. (p.404)

Population / Schools selected for participation all serve significant numbers of LTELLS, yet vary in size, organization, and location in order to reflect the range of services and programming being provided to these students in NYC. (p.404) / Research team comprised of six researchers: / (1) principal investigator, (1) faculty consultant, and (4) research assistants. (p.403) / Schools selected for participation all serve significant numbers of LTELLS, yet vary in size, organization, and location in order to reflect the range of services and programming being provided to these students in NYC. (p.404) / Research team comprised of six researchers: / (1) principal investigator, (1) faculty consultant, and (4) research assistants. (p.403)

Methods / To triangulate data regarding the past and present schooling experiences of the students in our sample, we examined their academic records. These included US schooling transcripts, report cards, test scores, birth certificates, home language identification surveys, and/ or bilingual counseling progress reports. / Analyzed students’ grades in English (including English language arts and ESL courses), language courses in their native language (if any), and Math. We looked at cumulative grade averages. When full transcripts were not available for some students, an average of grades in English, ESL, Native/ Foreign Language, and Mathematics was taken (p.404) / To triangulate data regarding the past and present schooling experiences of the students in our sample, we examined their academic records. These included US schooling transcripts, report cards, test scores, birth certificates, home language identification surveys, and/ or bilingual counseling progress reports. / Analyzed students’ grades in English (including English language arts and ESL courses), language courses in their native language (if any), and Math. We looked at cumulative grade averages. When full transcripts were not available for some students, an average of grades in English, ESL, Native/ Foreign Language, and Mathematics was taken (p.404)

Procedure / To answer the research questions, the researchers conducted in-depth interviews of 29 LTELL students, five school administrators, and four teachers who work with LTELLs. The purpose of the teacher and administrator interviews were to determine the current educational programming provided to LTELLs, as well as perceptions of the students’ strengths and weaknesses, and to learn which approaches educators feel are most successful in meeting the needs of this student population. Interviews were detailed, and at times the same participant was interviewed more than once, following a semi-structured interview protocol. The interviews were audio recorded and transcribed, and analyzed to identify the most prevalent themes (p.404).

Findings Themes / English literacy emphasis in school: Students are rarely exposed to academic literacy in their native languages / High school programming: / Disconnection to the needs of LTELLs: At the high schools studied, LTELLs take the same classes as all other ELLs and no services are specifically targeted to their needs. Often LTELLs, are placed into lower level ESL classes due to their limited literacy skills, which further intensifies the gap between their oral abilities and those of other students in their classes. Themes / English literacy emphasis in school: Students are rarely exposed to academic literacy in their native languages / High school programming: / Disconnection to the needs of LTELLs: At the high schools studied, LTELLs take the same classes as all other ELLs and no services are specifically targeted to their needs. Often LTELLs, are placed into lower level ESL classes due to their limited literacy skills, which further intensifies the gap between their oral abilities and those of other students in their classes.

Findings / Language Preferences and proficiency in LTELLs: Students favor academic literacy in English-even though English literacy is one of the greatest challenges they face in school / Literacy : All of the LTELLs in the sample are characterized by limited literacy skills in both English and their native languages, in spite of bilingualism. / School performance of LTELLS : The overall performance of LTELLs in school reflects their limited academic literacy skills, which are demanded in all of the courses they take. The cumulative high school average for all of the students in the sample is very low/ 69.2 % (D+). For many LTELLs, poor academic performance leads to grade retention. This can, in turn, lead to loss of confidence by LTELLs. / Language Preferences and proficiency in LTELLs: Students favor academic literacy in English-even though English literacy is one of the greatest challenges they face in school / Literacy : All of the LTELLs in the sample are characterized by limited literacy skills in both English and their native languages, in spite of bilingualism. / School performance of LTELLS : The overall performance of LTELLs in school reflects their limited academic literacy skills, which are demanded in all of the courses they take. The cumulative high school average for all of the students in the sample is very low/ 69.2 % (D+). For many LTELLs, poor academic performance leads to grade retention. This can, in turn, lead to loss of confidence by LTELLs.

Limitations of the Study / The scope of the study. / The specific interview questions of the faculty and teachers were not disclosed. / No specificity as to the boroughs in which schools are located, influencing the types of LTELLs included in the study. / The scope of the study. / The specific interview questions of the faculty and teachers were not disclosed. / No specificity as to the boroughs in which schools are located, influencing the types of LTELLs included in the study.

Shift to Quantitative Hypothesis: LTELLs who receive academic support tailored to their needs in both native language and English literacy will find more success in their academic classes than students who are enrolled in the current curriculum. Hypothesis: LTELLs who receive academic support tailored to their needs in both native language and English literacy will find more success in their academic classes than students who are enrolled in the current curriculum.

Quantitative Tools / A panel study would be used. Semi closed ended survey with native language translation for participants. / LTELL grade point averages (treatment and control) for LTELLs would be compared at the end of the study. / A panel study would be used. Semi closed ended survey with native language translation for participants. / LTELL grade point averages (treatment and control) for LTELLs would be compared at the end of the study.

Sample & Treatment Sample: 20 LTELLS, 4 administrators, 7 educators per school in 15 schools (3 per borough). Students will be enrolled in a biliteracy program implemented in two city high schools during the academic school year. Sample: 20 LTELLS, 4 administrators, 7 educators per school in 15 schools (3 per borough). Students will be enrolled in a biliteracy program implemented in two city high schools during the academic school year.

Speculate Findings / The emphasis on biliteracy will enable LTELLs to find increased academic success in NYC schools. Many student, lacking strong academic skills in their native language, will have these skills bolstered, leading to improved academic skills in both English and Native language classes. LTELLs will find it easier to achieve academic success in NYC schools, leading to lower rates of LTELL grade retention.