Introduction to Literary Criticism Or…Different “Lenses” in which to view a text. In our case, the drama, Death of A Salesman

Literary Criticism and Theory Any piece of text can be read with a number of different sets of “glasses,” or lens meaning you are looking for different things within the text. Literary Criticism helps readers understand a text in relation to the author, culture, and other texts.

The Most Common Critical Stances for Literature Formalistic Biographical Historical/Cultural Psychological Archetypal Gender/Feminist Marxist-Historical Deconstructionist

Formalist Criticism A formalist (aka New Criticism) reading of a text focuses on symbol, metaphor, imagery, and so on. Formalism ignores the author’s biography and focuses only on the interaction of literary elements within the text. It’s what you do most often in English literature.

Formalism / New Criticism involves a close reading of the text all information essential to the interpretation of a work must be found within the work itself focuses on analyzing irony, paradox, imagery, and metaphor also interested in the work's setting, characters, symbols, and point of view.

Formalism / New Criticism no need to bring in outside information about the history, politics, or society of the time, or about the author's life does not view works through the lens of feminism, psychology, mythology, or any other such standpoint not interested in the work's affect on the reader.

Formalism / New Criticism Terms Used in New Criticism: intentional fallacy - the false belief that the meaning or value of a work may be determined by the author's intention affective fallacy - the false belief that the meaning or value of a work may be determined by its affect on the reader external form - rhyme scheme, meter, stanza form, etc.

Formalism / New Criticism Advantages: can be performed without much research emphasizes the value of literature apart from its context virtually all critical approaches must begin here Disadvantages: text is seen in isolation ignores the context of the work cannot account for allusions

A Formalist Reading of “The Three Little Pigs” What does the wolf symbolize? Notice the consonance of “I’ll huff and I’ll puff…” How does the story foreshadow the final fate of the pigs? What does the wolf’s dialogue tell us about his character?

Biographical Criticism As the name suggests, this type of criticism reads the text looking for the author’s influence. By examining the author’s life, we can have a deeper understanding of his writing.

Historical/Biographical Approach views literature as the reflection of an author's life and times (or of the characters' life and times). it is necessary to know about the author and the political, economical, and sociological context of his times in order to truly understand his works.

Historical/Biographical Approach Advantages: works well for some which are obviously political or biographical in nature. places allusions in their proper classical, political, or biblical background. Disadvantages: "the intentional fallacy" tends to reduce art to the level of biography and make it relative (to the times) rather than universal.

Application What are some historical or biographical elements we might examine in a discussion of Death of A Salesman?

Historical/Cultural Criticism Of course, this critical viewpoint examines a text in relation to its historical or cultural backdrop. You may examine a text’s effect on history or culture. A historical/cultural analysis is often very similar to a biographical analysis, and it’s possible to view history, culture, and biography in a single essay.

Historical/Cultural Reading of The Crucible How accurate is Arthur Miller’s account of the Salem Witch Trials? What can The Crucible reveal about colonial New England and Puritan society?

Psychological Criticism Psychological critical theory applies the theories of psychology to a text to better understand its characters Based largely on Freud, this theory hinges on the belief that an examination of people’s (characters’) unconscious desires.

Psychoanalytical Approach views works through the lens of psychology looks either at the psychological motivations of the characters or of the authors themselves most frequently applies Freudian psychology to works, but other approaches also exist.

Freudian Approach to Personality Three parts to an individual’s psyche: the id: the instinctual, pleasure seeking part of the mind the superego: the part of the mind that represses the id's impulses the ego: the part of the mind that controls but does not repress the id's impulses, releasing them in a healthy way

Sex is Everything Freud believed that all human behavior is motivated by sexuality Oedipus complex: a boy's unconscious rivalry with his father for the love of his mother Electra complex: a girl’s unconscious rivalry with her mother for the love of her father (a.k.a. “daddy issues”)

Freudian Imagery Recognizes symbols that are linked to sexual pleasure concave images, such as ponds, flowers, cups, and caves as female symbols phallic symbols, objects that are longer than they are wide, are male images dancing, riding, and flying are associated with sexual pleasure water is usually associated with birth, the female principle, the maternal, the womb, and the death wish.

Psychoanalytical Approach Advantages: can be a useful tool for understanding character development and conflict Disadvantages: can turn a work into a psychological case study tends to see sex in everything, exaggerating this aspect of literature some works do not lend themselves readily to this approach.

Application What are some psychological or psychoanalytical elements we might examine in a discussion of Death of A Salesman ?

Archetypal Approach assumes that there is a collection of symbols, images, characters, and motifs (i.e. archetypes) that evokes basically the same response in all people identifies these patterns and discusses how they function in the works asserts that these archetypes are the source of much of literature's power.

Archetypal Approach based on the theories of psychologist Carl Jung he states that mankind possesses a "collective unconscious" that contains these archetypes and that is common to all of humanity

Some Archetypes archetypal women - the Good Wife/Mother, the Terrible Mother, the Virgin (often a Damsel in Distress), and the Fallen Woman. water - creation, birth-death-resurrection, purification, redemption, fertility, growth garden - paradise (Eden), innocence, fertility desert - spiritual emptiness, death, hopelessness red - blood, sacrifice, passion, disorder green - growth, fertility black - chaos, death, evil serpent - evil, sensuality, mystery, wisdom, destruction seven - perfection hero archetype - The hero is involved in a quest (in which he overcomes obstacles). He experiences initiation (involving a separation, transformation, and return), and finally he serves as a scapegoat, that is, he dies to atone.

Archetypal Approach Advantages: provides a universalistic approach to literature and identifies a reason why certain literature may survive the test of time it works well with works that are highly symbolic Disadvantages: literature may become a vehicle for archetypes can easily become a list of symbols without much analysis

Application What are some archetypal elements we might examine in a discussion of Death of A Salesman?

Psychological Criticism Of course, these complexes have their origins in literature and mythology. Psychological criticism is a way to understand characters, not diagnose them.

A Psychological Reading of Macbeth Macbeth kills King Duncan because he unconsciously recognizes the king as a father-figure. Hence, Duncan is a rival for power and the affections of the people. In the latter acts of the play, Macbeth has indulged his id so often that his ego has lost the ability to restrain it.

Gender/Feminist Criticism Gender criticism analyzes literature through the lens of socially-constructed gender roles. The largest part of gender criticism is feminism, which critiques and seeks to correct women’s subordination to men in society. In its purist form, feminism is about equality.

Gender Criticism A newer segment of gender criticism is “queer theory,” which looks for the influence of homosexuality within texts. Research of this type is fairly difficult because, as you’ve learned, homosexuality was largely suppressed in Europe and America, and it hasn’t been openly discussed until the last few decades.

Feminist Approach concerned with the roles of female characters within works may argue that gender determines everything, or just the opposite: that all gender differences are imposed by society, and gender determines nothing

Stages of Female Identity Feminine: the female accepts the definitions and roles male authorities have created for her Feminist: rebels against male authority and intentionally challenges all male definitions and roles Female: no longer concerned with male definitions or restrictions; defines her own voice and values

A Feminist Reading of Goldilocks As a single, young woman, Goldilocks finds herself without means or opportunity because she is unattached to a father or a husband. Perhaps, this is why she’s alone in the woods. An independent woman, then, is a threat to the “normal” nuclear family, represented by the three bears.

Marxist Approach Karl Marx perceived human history to have consisted of a series of struggles between classes--between the oppressed and the oppressing (“the haves” and “the have-nots”). Marx thought that materialism was the ultimate driving force in history

Marxist Approach Feudalism exploits workers to the point of revolt This leads to bourgeois capitalism In bourgeois capitalism, the privileged bourgeoisie rely on the working proletariat Workers are exploited to the point of revolt

Marxist Approach The successful working class will then establish a communist society In this ideal the labor, the means of production, and the profits are shared by all This system is an attempt at complete social and economic equality It’s a great theory but has some trouble in reality (ahem)

Marxist Approach Marxist criticism examines the nature of power structures within a novel. It asks questions like: Who has power? Who lacks power? Who is exploited by whom and why? How does power remain constant or shift throughout a work of literature? What makes certain characters powerful or powerless?

Marxist Approach It also examines commodities, possessions that give power Typical commodities are things like land and money but can also be things like social position, knowledge, or even a person Marxist criticism can also examine what commodities bring power and why within a work of literature

Application Who is in power within Death of A Salesman? What commodities does that character possess that allows him/her to have power? How does power shift or remain static throughout the drama?

Deconstructionist Criticism Deconstructionism argues that since there is no single meaning of any word, there can be no single meaning of a text. EVERY text, therefore, has multiple valid meanings because the reader may interpret the words differently than the writer intended them.

Deconstructionist Criticism Most literary criticism is about construction of a larger meaning from a text. Deconstructionism emphasizes the breakdown of any meaning within a text because of the variety of different readers. Example: “Write the author of ‘The Tell- Tale Heart.’”

Deconstructionism "It depends on what the meaning of the word 'is' is." Bill Clinton, during his 1998 grand jury testimony on the Monica Lewinsky affair

Deconstructionism Deconstructionism is basically a verbal Sophism; because there is no concrete meaning of anything, there is no single truth applicable to all human beings. Hence, everything is relative to you.

A Deconstructionist Reading of “The Tortoise and the Hare” The homophone hare/hair would make this fable incomprehensible without pictures. In Native American cultures, the tortoise is a symbol of honor, so Indians would interpret the “race” as a contest of honor and fair play instead of endurance.

More Literary Theory Yet To Come… New ways of viewing literature (and the world) continue to develop, but these are the main theories you’ll come in contact with.