BEHAVIOURAL ADAPTATIONS Behaviour in Animals

Innate versus learned behaviour The study of animal behaviour is called ethology The focus of this section is to look at the function of particular behaviour, rather than the mechanisms underlying a particular behaviour.

Innate Behaviour - definition When a behaviour is essentially the same in all members of a species, the behaviour is call innate or inborn behaviour. It is genetically controlled List some innate animal behaviours

Learned Behaviour - definition Learned behaviours are those that develop or change as we are shown how to do something. Copy, trial-and-error are some of the ways animals learn. When a behaviour is changed as a result of experience, learning has occurred. Learning enables an animal to adapt to change.

Activity performed in response to stimulus Behaviour Activity performed in response to stimulus Learned Behaviours Behaviours that develop or change as a result of experience Innate Behaviours Behaviours that are essentially the same in all members of a species Conditioning – respond to stimulus that normally does not elicit response Rhythmic behaviours Eg. Eating, sleeping, seasonal migration Operant conditioning – animal relates behaviour with reward or punishment and repeats or avoids behaviour Communication behaviours Reproductive behaviours Habituation – cease to respond to stimuli Competitive behaviours Imprinting – association with an object after exposure to it very early in life Dominance behaviours Social interactions Territoriality Observational – learns from observing actions of others

Innate Behaviours Rhythmic Behaviours - Animals repeat behaviours at regular intervals - Different species of animals may follow different patterns of rhythmic behaviour - Differences in rhythmic behaviours may be a significant factor in the ability of a group of animals to exploit the resources within the area in which they live and avoid competition from other species. - Regulated by both internal and external factors - internal – biological clock - external – light

Feeding Behaviour Feeding may be:- On an individual basis On a group basis

Spider Webs Many innate behaviours in spiders involve the use of silk – in feeding and in reproduction Spider webs vary in their design and structure

Whales The species of whales are classified into two major groups – Toothed and Baleen. Differing structures result in differing behaviours related to functions Gulping and skimming techniques suit the structures of the baleen whales (p346) Bubble netting is used by the humpback whale (p347)

Migration The movement of large numbers of animals over long distances from one area to another area, and their subsequent return to their original home, is called migration. Animals usually migrate using the same route each time. A diverse range of species migrate – birds, fish, eels, insects and mammals

Migration Some animals may take years to complete their migration cycle Winter and the disappearance of food – migration. Very low temperatures can be fatal to some species Migration is an important survival strategy

Bird Migration More than 1/3 of the world’s species of birds migrate

Why do birds migrate? Birds need a constant supply of food Approach of winter, reduction in food supply. Migrate to warmer climate for a more abundant food supply Migratory behaviour enhances survival

How do birds know where to fly? Innate, young birds are born ‘knowing’ to migrate Sun, stars, Earth’s magnetic field help determine the direction of flight Magnetite has been found in the tissues of some birds. Its presence is related to the bird’s ability to navigate using the magnetic field.

Communication Behaviours Communication in the animals is an innate behaviour. Can be through:- touch, posture, sound, visual display and chemical signals Communication behaviour is a response to a stimulus

Communication Behaviours Important components of communication include:- Stimulus for the communication Sender of a signal Receiver to whom the signal is directed The kind of signal sent How the signal is sent The behaviour of the receiver The setting in which the communication occurs How does the Bower bird communicate that he is a good potential mate?

Communication Behaviours Messages to trick a competitor Eg alarm calls to trick a competitor (p 349)

Communication Behaviours The language of bees The dance to indicate the location of a food source. Bees also use smell Why is it important for survival for worker bees to communicate to each regarding the location of a food source.

Communication Behaviours COMMUNICATION UNDER WATER Sound is an important means of communication underwater Sound is transmitted through water for long distances. Light can only penetrate very short distances below the surfaces The range of whale and dolphin noises include: blips, clicks, groans, moans and snores, lasting from a few seconds to several hours.

Communication Behaviours Why do whales sing? To locate and identify each other During courtship

Communication Behaviours Navigation, hunting Clicks Play-chase, pain Squawk Courtship, mating Yelp Threat Buzz Alarm, fright, distress Squeaks, cracks, pops Resting, predator nearby Silence Dolphins Use various sounds to communicate different information Use sounds for location and navigation Echolocation for determining position

Communication Behaviours CHEMICALS FOR COMMUNICATION Pheromones Used for identifying the location of food sources (leaving a pheromone trail) Attract members of the opposite sex (eg female dogs release a pheromone in the urine to notify males she is ready for mating) Can act over long or short distances Very easy for insects and other animals to locate a mate, even in sparsely populated areas.

Social and Territorial Interactions Social Interaction Involves two or more individuals. May involve cooperation (mating, food source) May involve aggression and conflict as individuals or group to defend territory or select a mate

Social and Territorial Interactions Reproductive behaviours (discussed further in chapter 12)

Social and Territorial Interactions GROUP ORGANISATION Size of groups and reasons for which the animals group varies A group may be permanent or stay together until its members are such that it splits in two Being a member of a group is safer than being alone Different kinds of groups are found in different species of animals Groups may be formed to make collecting food easier, for protection, for shelter or for mating. Whatever the reason, it increases the chances of survival of members of the group and the species.

Social and Territorial Interactions GROUP ORGANISATION Castes Eg ants, bees, termites, some wasps Each caste has a different structure and performs a different function in the group

Social and Territorial Interactions GROUP ORGANISATION Social Hierarchies That is a pecking order. Fighting occurs until an animal ‘knows its place’ in a group The higher an animal is in the pecking order the greater access to food and other aspects of life in the group Stronger animals in the group will have offspring that are more likely to be stronger members of the next generation

Social and Territorial Interactions GROUP ORGANISATION Leadership A complex social hierarchy Eg – Baboons with a dominant male and other males in rank order behind Why must a dog owner be the leader of the pack?

Social and Territorial Interactions GROUP ORGANISATION Territorial Behaviour Eg The dreaded Magpie swoop! Animals select a territory and defend it, protecting a mating territory or food source.

Social and Territorial Interactions COMPETITION Animals may compete for nesting places, positions in an hierarchy, etc Group dynamics is important for survival and reproduction in many species.

Social and Territorial Interactions Many animals congregate in groups. Wolves hunt in packs in order to corner their prey. A wolf hunting singly would not be nearly as successful a hunter, and so we can call group hunting an adaptation since it increases the wolves’ chances of survival. COOPERATION Animals often cooperate

Do Innate behaviours remain constant? Innate behaviours are genetically determined and are similar in all members of the species. However, innate behaviour is not necessarily fully developed at birth and may be modified by learning. This learning comes through trial-and-error and experience.

LEARNED BEHAVIOURS Some behaviours change as a result of maturation of the body of an organism due to hormonal and structural changes. These should not be confused with learned behaviours which are those that develop or change as a result of experience

Table from page 343 repeat slide

LEARNED BEHAVIOURS Conditioning Eg food stimulus/response Pavlov’s Dog experiment – the ringing of a bell prior to feeding a dog. Eventually the dog salivates just at the ringing of the bell.

LEARNED BEHAVIOURS Pavlov’s experiment is known as Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning is trial-and-error

Operant Conditioning Organisms make responses that have consequences The consequences serve to increase or decrease the likelihood of making that response again The response can be associated with cues in the environment We put coins in a machine to obtain food But we refrain when an Out of Order sign is placed on the machine

Key Aspects of Operant Conditioning In operant conditioning, the stimulus is a cue, it does not elicit the response Operant responses are voluntary In operant conditioning, the response elicits a reinforcing stimulus, whereas in classical conditioning, the UCS elicits the reflexive response

Key Terms of Operant Conditioning Reinforcement is any procedure that increases the response Punishment is any procedure that decreases the response Types of reinforcers: Primary: satisfy a biological need Secondary: have learned value

LEARNED BEHAVIOURS Habituation The ability to ‘get used to’ a repeated stimulus, such as a noise, is called habituation. Why is Habituation important for animals? - Animals will respond to a noise if they think it has been made by a predator. - Habituation enable animals to distinguish the unimportant noises and shapes from those that are important - Habituation allows animals to ignore meaningless stimuli and save energy for activities critical for survival.

LEARNED BEHAVIOURS Insight Insight learning is related to the ability of an animal to apply past experience to solving a new problem without a trial-and-error period Most highly developed in humans Play forms an important part in developing problem-solving skills for later use.

LEARNED BEHAVIOURS Imprinting The formation of an attachment to something in the environment shortly after hatching or birth is called imprinting The learning that takes place during imprinting is rapid and cannot be reversed

LEARNING FROM ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR If we understand the natural behaviour of animals, we can also analyse and interpret any change in behaviour. A change in animal behaviour can sometimes indicate a change in the environment