Certification Study Group Groups and Teams

Groups in Organizations Definitions Two or more people interacting to accomplish a common purpose or goal

Groups & Teams in Organizations Types of Groups Functional group A group created by the organization to accomplish a number of organizational purposes with an indefinite time horizon Informal or interest group Created by its members for purposes that may or may not be relevant to the organization Task group A group created by the organization to accomplish a relatively narrow range of purposes within a stated time horizon

Groups and Teams in Organizations President Vice president Executive committee Legal advisor Project manager Groups and Teams in Organizations Types of Groups in Organizations Cross-functional team (form of task group) Functional group Informal group

Teams in Organizations Definitions A group of workers who function as a unit, often with little or no supervision, to carry out work-related activities Organizations create teams to give more responsibility to workers, to empower workers, to allow the organization to capitalize on the workers’ knowledge and motivation, and to shed bureaucracy and promote flexibility Sometimes are called self-managed teams, cross-functional teams, or high performance teams.

Groups & Teams in Organizations Types of Teams Problem solving team Comprises knowledge workers who gather to solve a specific problem, then disband Management team Consists mainly of managers from various functions, who coordinate work among other teams

Groups & Teams in Organizations Types of Teams…continued Work team Responsible for the daily work of the organization and, when empowered, are self-managed teams Virtual team Members interact via computer Quality circle Consists of workers and supervisors, who meet to discuss workplace problems

Groups & Teams in Organizations Why People Join Interpersonal attraction People are attracted to one another Group activities Activities of the group appeal to them Group goals Group’s goals motivate them Need satisfaction Satisfies an individual’s need for affiliation Instrumental benefits Membership provides other benefits

Stages of Group Development Slow evolution to next stage Burst of activity Forming Members get acquainted test interpersonal behaviors Storming Members develop group structure and patterns of interaction Performing Members enact roles, direct effort toward goal attainment and performance Norming Members share acceptance of roles, sense of unity Stages of Group Development

Stages of Group Development Forming includes: Attempting to define the task and how the task will be accomplished Abstract discussions of task-related concepts/issues, frustrates some members Storming includes: Defensiveness, competition, and factions Arguing among members, even when they agree

Stages of Group Development Norming includes: Establishing and maintaining team ground rules More friendliness and confiding in one another Performing includes: Ability of the group/team to prevent or work through problems Close attachment to the team

Stages of Group Development Source: Van Fleet, David D., and Tim Peterson, Contemporary Management, Third Edition. Copyright © 1994 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Used with permission.

Characteristics of Teams Role The part an individual plays in helping the group reach its goals. Task-specialist—role concentrating on getting the group’s tasks accomplished. Socioemotional role—providing social and emotional support to others on the team.

Characteristics of Teams Role Structures The set of defined roles and interrelationships among those roles that the group or team members define and accept. A result of role episodes in which the expected role is translated and defined into the enacted role. Role ambiguity—occurs when the sent role is unclear.

Characteristics of Teams The Development of a Role The first two stages of role development are group processes as the group members let the individuals know what is expected of them. The other two parts are individual processes as the new group members perceive and enact their roles. Expected role Sent Perceived Enacted

Characteristics of Teams Role Structures Role conflict—occurs when the messages and cues comprising the sent role are clear but contradictory or mutually exclusive. Interrole conflict is the result of a conflict between roles. Intrarole conflict is caused by conflicting demands from different sources. Intrasender conflict arises when a single source sends contradictory messages. Person-role conflict is the discrepancy between role requirements and an individual’s values, attitudes, and needs.

Characteristics of Teams Role Structures Role ambiguity – When the sent role is unclear Role overload— occurs when role expectations exceed an individual’s capacities.

Characteristics of Teams Implications Avoid role ambiguity, conflict, and overload by: Having clear and reasonable expectations of employees. Sending clear and straightforward role cues. Taking into account the employee’s other roles and personal value system. Recognizing an individual’s capabilities and limits.

Characteristics of Teams Behavioral Norms Norms are standards of behavior that a group accepts and expects of its members. Norms define the boundaries between acceptable and unacceptable behavior. Norm generalization—the norms of one group cannot always be generalized to another group. Norm variation—norms and their application vary within a group or team.

Characteristics of Teams Behavioral Norms Norm conformity — individuals conform as response to: Group or team pressure to conform to group behavior. An initial (ambiguous) stimulus prompting group behavior. Individual traits that reflect their propensity to conform. The influence of situational factors (e.g., group size and unanimity).

Characteristics of Teams Behavioral Norms Individual responses to norm conformity: Adopt the norms of the group. Try to obey the “spirit” of the norms while retaining individuality. Socialization Norm conformity that occurs when a person makes the transition from being an outsider to being an insider in the organization.

Group Cohesiveness Cohesiveness – The extent to which members are loyal and committed to the group; the degree of mutual attractiveness within the group. Factors increasing cohesiveness Intergroup competition Personal attraction Favorable evaluation Agreement on goals Interaction Factors reducing cohesiveness Group size Disagreement on goals Intragroup competition Domination Unpleasant experiences

Characteristics of Teams Consequences of Cohesiveness The interaction between cohesiveness and performance norms The best situation is high cohesiveness combined with high performance Cohesiveness Low performance Lowest High Moderate Performance norms

Characteristics of Teams Formal and Informal Leadership Informal leader A person who engages in leadership activities but whose right to do so has not been formally recognized by the organization or group. An informal leader, ideally, may also be the formal leader for the group or he may supplement the formal leader in fulfilling leadership roles. Informal leaders draw on referent or expert power to establish themselves as leaders.

Characteristics of Teams (cont’d) Formal and Informal Leadership Formal leader A person who has been elected or designated to engage in leadership activities by the group members A person who has been formally appointed or recognized by the organization as the leader for the group.

Group and Team Decision Making in Organizations The most common method of group and team decision making are: Interacting groups Delphi groups Nominal groups. Interacting groups or teams are the most common form of decision-making groups which consists of an existing group or newly formed team interacting and then making a decision. Delphi groups are sometimes used for developing a consensus of expert opinion from a panel of experts who individually contribute through a moderator. Nominal groups are a structured technique designed to generate creative and innovative ideas through the individual contributions of alternatives that are winnowed down through a series of rank-ordering of the alternatives to reach a decision.

Group Decision Making Advantages Disadvantages More information & knowledge are available More alternatives are likely to be generated More acceptance of the final decision is likely Enhanced communication of the decision may result Better decisions Disadvantages The process takes longer, so it is more costly Compromise decisions due to indecisiveness may emerge One person may dominate the group Groupthink may occur

Groupthink A situation that occurs when a group or team’s desire for consensus and cohesiveness overwhelms its desire to reach the best possible decision. Source: Gregory Moorhead, Group & Organizations Studies (Vol. 7, No. 4), pp. 429-444. Copyright © 1982 by Sage Publications, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Inc.

Managing Group and Team Decision-Making Processes Promoting the Effectiveness of Group and Team Decision Making: Be aware of the pros and cons of having a group or team make a decision. Set deadlines for when decisions must be made. Avoid problems with dominance by managing group membership. Hold a follow-up meeting to recheck the decision. Have each group member individually and critically evaluate all alternatives. As a manager, do not make your position known too early. Appoint a group member to be a “devil’s advocate.”

Interpersonal and Intergroup Conflict The Nature of Conflict Conflict A disagreement between two or more individuals, groups, or organizations.

Interpersonal and Intergroup Conflict The Nature of Conflict There is an optimal level of conflict in an organization: Too little conflict and the organization becomes complacent and apathetic, and lacks innovation and underperforms. Too much conflict creates a dysfunctional organization where hostility and non-cooperation dominate, and the organization suffers from low performance. A moderate level of conflict in an organization fosters motivation, creativity, innovation, and initiative and can raise performance.

Interpersonal and Intergroup Conflict The Nature of Organizational Conflict Conflict High Low Optimal level of conflict Performance

Interpersonal and Intergroup Conflict Interpersonal Conflict Personality clash Differing beliefs or perceptions Competitiveness Intergroup Conflict Interdependence Different goals Competition for scarce resources Causes of Conflict Conflict Between Organization and the Environment Conflict with competition Conflict with consumer groups Conflict with employees

Causes and Consequences of Conflict Source: Van Fleet, David D., and Tim Peterson, Contemporary Management, Third Edition. Copyright © 1994 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Used with permission.

Managing Conflict in Organizations Methods for Managing Conflict

Certification Study Group Communication

Communication Communication Effective communication The process of transmitting information from one person to another Effective communication The process of sending a message so that the message received is as close in meaning as possible to the message intended

Managing the Flow of Information in Organizations Source: Barney, Jay B. and Ricky W. Griffin, The Management of Organizations. Copyright © 1992 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Used with permission.

Information and the Manager Key Concepts... Data Raw figures and facts reflecting an aspect of reality Information Data presented in a form that has meaning Information Technology (IT) The resources used by the organization to manage information to achieve its mission

Characteristics of Information Accurate A valid and reliable reflection of reality Timely Information delivered in time for managerial action Complete Information that tells a complete story, rather than being incomplete or distorted Relevant Meets the needs and circumstances of the individual manager

The Communication Process Start Noise 2 Encoding Sender Receiver 3 Transmission through channels 7 1 Meaning 8 Decoding 4 5 6 The numbers indicate the sequence in which steps take place.

The Communication Process Steps in the Communication Process Deciding to transmit a fact, idea, opinion, or other information to the receiver. Encoding the meaning into a form appropriate to the situation. Transmitting through the appropriate channel or medium. Decoding the message back into a form that has meaning to the receiver. “Noise” is anything disrupting the communication process.

The Communication Process Feedback The receiver becomes the sender and the sender becomes the receiver. This is required to verify meaning and complete the effective communication process

Interpersonal Communication Oral Communication Face-to-face conversations, group discussions, telephone calls, and other situations in which the spoken word is used to express meaning. Advantages of oral communication Promotes prompt feedback and interchange in the form of verbal questions and responses. Is easy to use and can be done with little preparation.

Interpersonal Communication Oral Communication Disadvantages of oral communication Suffers from problems with inaccuracy in meaning and details. Leaves no time for thought and consideration and no permanent record of what was said.

Interpersonal Communication Written Communication Memos, letters, reports, notes, email, and other methods in which the written word is used to transmit meaning. Advantages of written communication Is accurate and leaves a permanent record of the exchange. Leaves for thought and consideration, can be referenced. Is easy to use and can be done with little preparation.

Interpersonal Communication Written Communication Disadvantages of written communication Inhibits feedback and interchange due to burden of the process of preparing a physical document. Considerable delay can occur in clarifying message meanings.

Forms of Communication in Organizations Choosing the Right Form The situation determines the most appropriate medium Oral communication and email is preferred for personal, nonroutine, or high priority communications. Formal written communication (e.g., memos, letters, reports, and notes) are used for messages that are impersonal, routine, and lower priority.

Forms of Communication in Organizations Communication in Networks and Teams Communication network—the pattern through which the members of a group or team communicate. Research suggests: When the group’s task is simple and routine, centralized networks perform with the greatest efficiency and accuracy. When the group’s task is complex and nonroutine, decentralized networks with open communications that foster interaction and exchange of relevant information tend to be most effective.

Forms of Communication in Organizations Types of Communication Networks 2 1 3 4 5 Circle 2 1 5 3 4 Wheel 3 4 5 1 2 Y 2 1 3 4 5 All channel 3 2 4 5 1 Chain

Communication Networks Wheel – all communication flows through one central person (i.e., the leader). The Chain – offers a more even flow of information among members (although the two people on each end interact with only one other person. The Y – slightly less centralized – two people are close to the center.

Communication Networks The Circle – the chain closed in The All Channel network – The most decentralized allows a free flow of information among all group members. Everyone participates equally.

Organizational Communication Vertical Communication Communication that flows up and down the organization, usually along formal reporting lines. Takes place between managers and subordinates and may involve several levels of the organization. Upward communication Consists of messages from subordinates to superiors and is more subject to distortion. Downward communication Occurs when information flows down the hierarchy from superiors to subordinates.

Organizational Communication Horizontal Communication Communication that flows laterally within the organization; involves persons at the same level of the organization. Facilitates coordination among independent units. Useful in joint problem solving. Plays a major role in communications among members of work teams drawn from different departments.

Vertical and Horizontal Communication Source: Van Fleet, David D., and Tim Peterson, Contemporary Management, Third Edition. Copyright © 1994 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Used with permission.

Forms of Communication in Organizations Formal Communication in Organizations Follows the official reporting relationships and/or prescribed channels. Vertical communication Horizontal communication

Electronic Communication Information Technology (IT) The resources used by the organization to manage information that it needs to carry out its mission.

Electronic Communication Formal information systems Transaction-processing systems Management information systems (MIS) Decision support systems (DSS) Executive information systems (EIS) Intranets Expert systems Personal electronic technology

Formal Information Systems Transaction processing system System designed to handle routine and recurring transactions Management information system (MIS) System that gathers more comprehensive data, organizes it in a form of value to managers

Formal Information Systems Decision support system (DSS) System that automatically searches for, manipulates, and summarizes information needed by managers for specific decisions Executive Information Systems (EIS) A quick-reference, easy-access application of information systems specially designed for instant access by upper-level managers.

Formal Information Systems Intranets Firewall-protected private networks for internal company use by employees. Expert Systems Information systems designed to imitate the thought process of human experts.

Electronic Communication Personal Electronic Technology Technological advances (e.g., fax machines, cellular telephones, copiers, and personal computers) have created opportunities for quickly disseminating and contacting others in the organization. Corporate intranets and the Internet have made possible teleconferences and the rapid retrieval of information from all corners of the globe.

Electronic Communication Personal Electronic Technology Telecommuting allows people to work at home and transmit their work to the company by means of a telephone and a modem. Disadvantages are the lack of face-to-face contact, strong personal relationships, falling behind professionally, and losing out in organizational politics.

New Information Technologies Source: Van Fleet, David D., and Tim Peterson, Contemporary Management, Second Edition. Copyright © 1991 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Used with permission.

Electronic Communication Problems: Individuals fall behind in their professional field Persons can be victimized by organizational policies…cannot protect themselves Telecommuters miss out on organizational grapevine Difficult for organization to build strong culture without face-to-face interaction

Informal Communication in Organizations Informal Communications May or may not follow official reporting relationships and/or prescribed organizational channels and may have nothing to do with official organizational business. Common forms of informal communications are the grapevine, management by wandering around, and nonverbal communication.

Informal Communication in Organizations

Informal Communication Informal Communication is on the rise in organizations because: Increase in merger, acquisition, and takeover activity Facilities being spread from downtown areas to suburbs, which results in employees talking more to each other

Informal Communication in Organizations Grapevine – an informal communication network that can permeate an organization. The Gossip Chain One person tells many The Cluster Chain Many people tell a few Source: Adapted from Human Behavior at Work: Organizational Behavior, Eighth Edition, by Keith Davis and John W. Newstrom. Copyright © 1989 by McGraw-Hill. Reprinted by permission of the McGraw-Hill Companies.

Informal Communication in Organizations Management by Wandering Around Managers keep in touch with what’s going on by wandering around and talking to people on all levels in the organization

Informal Communication in Organizations Nonverbal Communication Any communication exchange that does not use words, or uses words to carry more meaning than the strict definition of the words themselves. Much of the content of a message may be transmitted by facial expression alone; other message content is derived from inflection and tone of the voice. Only a small portion of the message content is due to the words in the message. Facial expression 55% Inflection and tone 38% Words in the message 7%

Informal Communication in Organizations Nonverbal Communication Kinds of nonverbal communication practiced by managers: Images—the kinds of words people elect to use to give emphasis and effect to what they say. Settings—boundaries, familiarity, home turf (e.g., office location, size, and furnishings) are symbols of power and influence how people choose to communicate in organizations.

Informal Communication in Organizations Nonverbal Communication Kinds of nonverbal communication practiced by managers: Body language—how people of different cultures and backgrounds physically position themselves and react to the stance and body movements of others has a strong influence on communications between individuals.

Barriers to Communication Individual barriers Conflicting or inconsistent cues Credibility about the subject Reluctance to communicate Poor listening skills Predispositions about the subject Organizational barriers Semantics Status or power differences Different perceptions Noise Overload

Barriers to Effective Communication Source: Van Fleet, David D., and Tim Peterson, Contemporary Management, Third Edition. Copyright © 1994 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Used with permission.

More and Less Effective Listening Skills Stays active, focused Pays attention Is passive, laid back More Effective Listening Less Effective Listening Is easily distracted Asks questions Keeps an open mind Asks no questions Has preconceptions Assimilates information Disregards information

Improving Communication Effectiveness Organizational skills Follow up Regulate information flow Understand the richness of media Individual skills Encourage two-way communication Be aware of language and meaning Be sensitive to sender’s and receiver’s perspective Develop good listening skills