Cognitive information processing

A result of several influences Especially: Learning theory S-R; S-O-R Computer science/Information processing Turing Intelligent machines Information theory Shannon/Bell Labs

Proposes: A series of processes are performed on environmental information that then affect the behavior of the organism (person) Input processes, storage processes, output processes Mainly in the brain, but not all The processes are in a relatively invariant order All people follow the same set of processes of thinking However, the outcomes can be quite different

Four major types of info processing theories Stage theory Depth of processing theory Parallel distributed processing theory Connectionist models

Stage theory Argues for three major types of memory Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory

Levels-of-processing All information is stored, problem is in retrieval Retrieval is based on the amount of elaboration used in processing of information Perception, attention, labeling, meaning

Parallel distributed processing theory Simultaneous processing by several different parts of memory system rather than sequentially

Connectionistic theory Information is stored in multiple locations throughout the brain in the form of networks of connections More connections to a single idea or concept, the more likely it is to be stored and retrieved

General principles Limited capacity available for active processing at any given time Bottlenecks Control mechanism—part of the system’s processing capacity must be assigned to a control mechanism Allocates processing capacity Prioritizes activities Coordinates actions

Sensory activation Environmental cues generate changes within specialized organs Eyes Ears Skin Tongue Only a portion of environmental phenomena generate sensual changes Perceptual thresholds Infrared light X-rays

Transduction of sensual reaction Sensory organs create patterns of electrical impulses as a response to environmental stimuli (Transduction) Qualitatively different patterns are produced for visual, sound, touch (haptic), and language (semantic) memory systems

Buffering and filtering Sensual buffers are thought to exist that retain the electrical impulses for a short period of time The ‘most important’ content is passed along while the ‘less important’ content is filtered out Cannot handle the vast amount of information that senses generate Filtering is based on ‘pattern recognition’

Stimuli that pass through filters Inhibitor modulation Those patterns, etc. that are neither seen as especially important nor so unimportant that they can be ignored are “dampened” Allows for monitoring of content without use of extensive processing capacity

Working memory The active portion of memory (including consciousness) where processes that reject, evaluate, interpret Limited capacity Allocation of processing capacity is known as “attention” Intentional v. automatic “content attributes” v. need recognition

Working memory Must draw upon ‘long-term memory’ to assign meaning to the new patterns of electrical impulses What does “economic impact” (a pattern of impulses representing a set of characters on a page) mean? Meaning is actually the set of relationships identified/constructed between existing concepts and the new ones

Determinants of attention Most content is disposed of quickly—recognized as routine and then ignored Does not get integrated into long-term memory (some controversy here) “Habituation” of repetitive tasks, experiences leads to ‘monitoring’ Attention allocated to divergence from the norm, expectations

Determinants of attention Hard-wired to attend to cues that had survival value (those that didn’t left the gene pool) Movement Loud noises Bright colors/contrasts Unexpected or unusual features

Film examples Apocalypse Now The Bourne Identity Master and Commander

Determinants of attention Internally-generated needs draw attention to ‘content’ that relates to those needs Hunger Pain Fear Sexual desire

Determinants of attention Learned interests and evaluations of importance direct attention to certain ‘content’ Those with an interest in foreign affairs will allocated attention to news stories about Iraq, etc.

Capacity For a long time, considered “7+/-2 chunks” of information More recent research has argued that we have greater capacity Ability to monitor many environmental cues at one time

Processing Info is processed at different levels From simple recognition thru “elaboration” Automatic, lizard-brain response to

The more we already know in a given domain, the less effort to process new information The less ‘change’ likely as a result of processing Experts less likely to change their minds due to inclusion of new info However, experts more likely to deeply process info in their area of interest

Long-term memory A portion of ‘information’ from working memory is prepared for transfer to long-term (permanent) storage To do so, it is integrated into structures of meaning (schema) held within long-term memory The integration gives ‘meaning’ to the new information while reconfiguring the schema that are activated to interpret the new info Reconfiguration of schema is usually minor

Interpretation Interpretation is the process of comparing new info to that held in LTM Usually the outcome is largely in line with existing beliefs “Biased” interpretation Many scholars see this as ego-defensive May simply be efficient with regard to the massive flow of information and limited cognitive capacity

Retrieval from LTM Information retrieved from LTM is limited Would quickly reach overload if we tried to access all potentially relevant info Would take far too long—can’t spend long periods of time on anything but the most crucial new info/decision-making Retrieval based on perceived shared or similar meaning/concepts Memories in LTM organized hierarchically? Schematically? Etc.

Influences on retrieval Frequency and Recency of Activation Memory traces are strengthened through use, become less strong over time Vividness Emotionality Relationships with other related concepts One concept is likely to be accessed when another, closely related concept, is accessed

Influences on retrieval Concepts are retrieved according to the set of relationships they have with other concepts Spreading activation The structure of relationships varies by individual Culture influences structure of relations/ topics/concepts held

Learning Content features Multiple exposure Repetition Attachment with existing beliefs/knowledge Vividness Emotionality Alignment with existing beliefs Multiple exposure Existing knowledge (targeting) Interest

Learning/memory Evidence indicates quite limited ability to recall or even recognize media content experienced recently Memory for ‘distant’ content exhibits clear biases Even relatively powerful memories can be ‘false’

Persuasion Reconfiguration of evaluative schema Persuasive messages tend to exhibit certain features: Credible sources Vivid examples rather than statistical trends Emotionality Visual logic Propaganda methods (demonization, attachment to revered symbols, etc.)

Decision-making Internal and external sources of information Low-effort decision-making the rule Even for ‘important’ decisions (cars and make-up) Satisficing the most common behavior Costs of info search v. expected return Much more likely to depend on existing knowledge, info than to engage in active information seeking

“Mindless” behavior Much of our behavior is relatively automatic—don’t see the effort necessary to change ingrained behaviors as worth the costs Much of media use is relatively ‘mindless’

Behavior Behavior is mostly controlled by the outcome of info processing in working memory Actions taken to meet needs/drives/ motivations Responses to environmental demands Goal-directed behavior

Behavior effectiveness and adjustment The environmental change observed after behavioral action acts as new information that goes through the info processing system and is encoded into our schema relating to the topic Perceived success, failure becomes a guide to new action brought on by perceived needs, etc.