Chapter 5 Gender Issues

Sex and Gender Definitions genetic, anatomical Gender psychosocial meaning of maleness and femaleness Gender Identity subjective sense of being male or female Gender (Sex) Role cultural norms for male and female behavior

Gender-Identity Formation Typical prenatal differentiation 23 human chromosomes 22 autosomes and 1 sex chromosome Chromosomal sex XX: female XY: male DSS gene on X SRY gene on Y Is our sense of being male or female based more on biological factors or on social learning? What is the best treatment strategy for intersexed children who are born with an ambiguous mixture of male and female external genitals?

Typical Prenatal Differentiation Caption: Gender Identity as a Biological Process: Typical Prenatal Differentiation

Typical Prenatal Differentiation Gonadal sex Ovaries or testes Hormonal sex Estrogens and androgens

Typical Prenatal Differentiation Internal structures Müllerian duct Males – Vas deferens, seminal vesicles, ejaculatory duct Wolffian duct Females – Fallopian tubes, uterus, inner 1/3 vagina External structures Genital tubercle Clitoris or penis Labioscrotal swelling Labia or scrotum

Prenatal Differentiation of Internal Structures Caption: Prenatal development of male and female duct systems from undifferentiated (before sixth week) to differentiated.

Prenatal Differentiation of External Genitals Caption: Prenatal development of male and female external genitals from undifferentiated to fully differentiated.

Homologous Sex Organs Caption: Homologous sex organs

Sex Differentiation Of The Brain Hypothalamus Differentiates in pregnancy Directs production of sex hormones May influence sex differences and sexual functioning Cerebral hemispheres Corpus callosum

Parts of the Brain Caption: Parts of the brain: (a) cross section of the human brain showing the cerebral cortex, corpus callosum, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland; (b) top view showing the left and right cerebral hemispheres. Only the cerebral cortex covering the two hemispheres is visible.

Atypical Prenatal Differentiation Intersexed True hermaphrodites Pseudohermaphrodites Sex chromosome disorders Turner’s syndrome XO Klinefelter’s syndrome XXY

Atypical Prenatal Differentiation Disorders affecting prenatal hormonal processes Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) Fetally androgenized females DHT-deficient males

Atypical Prenatal Differentiation Caption: Summary of some examples of atypical prenatal sex differentiation.

Social Learning Influences on Gender Identity Firm gender identity by age 3 Mead study Culture determines gender role Long-term case studies by Money Psychosexually neutral at birth Follow-up of Money’s cases by Diamond Another case often overlooked (Bradley) Long-term problems with surgical reassignment Assume that you are the leader of a team of health professionals who must decide the best treatment for an intersexed infant. Would you assign a gender identity and perform the surgical and/or hormonal treatments consistent with the assigned gender? If so, what gender would you select? Why? If you would decide not to assign a gender, what kind of follow-up or management strategy would you suggest during the child’s developmental years?

The Interactional Model Nature Biological determinants Nurture Social learning and the environment Acknowledge the interaction of both Relative roles are still unclear

Transsexualism and Transgenderism Transexualism Gender identity is opposite to biological sex Transgendered Appearance and/or behavior does not conform to traditional gender roles Variations of transgendered behaviors Intersexed people Gender Identity vs. sexual orientation

Transsexualism Etiology Options Outcomes Gender blending/cross-dressing Psychotherapy Sex reassignment Outcomes

Gender Roles Gender-based stereotypes (North American) Males Independent and aggressive Females Dependent and submissive Recent trend away from rigid stereotypes Women less entrenched than men in rigid gender-role stereotypes Ethnic variation in gender roles

Gender Roles Agents of Socialization Parental expectations Peers School teachers and textbooks Television and gender-based stereotypes Religious training

Gender Role Expectations Women undersexed, men oversexed Men initiate, women receive Women as controllers, men as movers Men are unemotional and strong Women are nurturing and supportive

Androgyny Transcending Gender Roles Having characteristics of both sexes Benefits Drawbacks May show more flexibility and comfort with sexuality

Chapter 6 Sexual Arousal and Response

The Brain and Sexual Arousal Cerebral cortex (mental events) Reasoning, language, and imagination Limbic system and sexual behavior Hypothalamus Neurotransmitters Dopamine facilitates sexual arousal Serotonin inhibits sexual arousal

The Limbic System and Sexual Behavior Caption: The limbic system, a region of the brain associated with emotion and motivation, is important in human sexual function. Key structures, shaded in color, include the cingulate gyrus, portions of the hypothalamus, amygdala, and the hippocampus.

The Senses and Sexual Arousal All sensory systems can contribute to arousal Touch is the dominant “sexual sense” Primary erogenous zones Secondary erogenous zones Vision usually next in dominance Visual stimuli Men self-report higher arousal than women Women and men have similar physiological responses

Other Senses and Sexual Arousal Smell may arouse or offend Pheromones Taste plays a minor role Hearing plays a variable role

Aphrodisiacs Substances believed to arouse sexual desire or increase capacity for sexual activity Food Drugs and alcohol Yohimbine No clear evidence of genuine aphrodisiac qualities Role of expectations

Anaphrodisiacs Inhibits sexual behavior Drugs (e.g. opiates, tranquilizers) Antihypertensives, antidepressants & antipsychotics Birth control pills Nicotine Constricts blood flow Possibly reduces circulating testosterone

The Role of Hormones in Sexual Behavior Steroid hormones Androgens (including testosterone) Produced by testes, adrenal glands, and ovaries Estrogens Produced by ovaries and testes Women and men produce both types Neuropeptide hormones Oxytocin

Sex Hormones in Male Sexual Behavior Testosterone Linked to sexual desire and genital sensitivity Castration leads to reduced sexual desire Antiandrogen drugs Hypogonadism

Sex Hormones in Female Sexual Behavior Estrogens Overall link between estrogen and female sexual behavior is unclear Estrogen Therapy (ET) Testosterone Role as major libido hormone in females

How Much Testosterone Is Necessary? Two forms of testosterone (free and bound) Free testosterone linked to libido Although women have less free testosterone, their cells are more sensitive to it than men’s Too much testosterone is linked to adverse effects Testosterone levels decrease with age Fairly rapid decrease for women at menopause; more gradual decline for men Testosterone Replacement Therapy

Oxytocin and Sexual Behavior Secreted during cuddling and physical intimacy Increased skin sensitivity High levels associated with orgasmic release for women and men For women, stimulates contractions of uterine wall during orgasm

Sexual Response Caption: Kaplan’s three-stage model of the sexual response cycle. This model is distinguished by its identification of desire as a prelude to sexual response. Source: Kaplan 1979.

Sexual Response Master’s and Johnson’s Four Phases Excitement Plateau Orgasm Resolution

Sexual Response Master’s and Johnson’s Four Phase Model Phases of physiological responses Two basic physiological processes Vasocongestion Myotonia

Sexual Response Cycle Caption: Major physiological changes during each of the four phases of the sexual response cycle

Female Sexual Response Caption: Major changes in female sexual anatomy during the sexual response cycle.

Male Sexual Response Caption: Major changes in male sexual anatomy during the sexual response cycle.

Orgasm Shortest phase of sexual response cycle Men and women’s subjective descriptions of orgasm are similar Most female orgasms result from stimulation of the clitoris Grafenberg spot Area on lower front wall of vagina Sensitive to pressure Sometimes results in “ejaculation”

Sex Differences in Sexual Response Greater variability in female response Male refractory period Women can experience multiple orgasms

Aging & Sexual Response Cycle Older women Response cycle continues, but with decreased intensity Excitement: Vaginal lubrication begins more slowly, reduced amount Plateau: decreased vagina flexibility Orgasm: number of uterine contractions decrease Resolution: occurs more rapidly

Aging and the Sexual Response Cycle Older men Response cycle continues, with changes in intensity and duration of response Excitement: lengthened time to erection Plateau: able to sustain plateau phase longer Orgasm: reduced muscular contractions and force of ejaculation Resolution: occurs more rapidly refractory period lengthens

Age-Related Changes in the Sexual Response Cycle Caption: Common changes in the sexual response cycle of older women and men.

Chapter 7 Love and Communication in Intimate Relationships

What Is Love? Difficult to define and/or measure Special attitude with behavioral and emotional components Different things to different people Difficult to measure

Types of Love Passionate Love Also known as romantic love or infatuation Intense psychological feelings Generalized physiological arousal Strong sexual desire Avoid conflict Feelings of completeness Short-lived

Types of Love Companionate Love Less intense than passionate love Friendly affection and deep attachment Familiarity and tolerance for short-comings More enduring than passionate love

Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love Caption: In Sternberg’s love triangle, various combinations of three components of love (passion, intimacy, and commitment) make up the different kinds of love. Note that nonlove is the absence of all three components

Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love Passion, Intimacy, and Commitment are the three love components Passion builds then fades Intimacy and commitment continue to build Variations in components yield different kinds of love Intimacy alone = friendship Passion alone = infatuation Commitment alone = empty love

Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love Caption: Sternberg theorizes that the passion component of love peaks early in the relationship and then declines, whereas the other two components, intimacy and commitment, continue to build gradually over time.

Lee’s Styles of Loving Romantic (eros) Game-playing (ludus) Possessive (mania) Compassionate (storge) Altruistic (agape) Pragmatic (pragma) Hypothesis that relationship success is influenced by compatibility in styles of loving

Falling in Love The chemistry of love Neurotransmitters Endorphins Norepinephrine Dopamine Phenylethylamine (PEA) Oxytocin Endorphins Loss of romantic love and neurotransmitter withdrawal

Falling in Love Proximity Mere exposure effect Familiarity breeds liking or loving Greater proximity often reflects shared interests

Falling in Love Similarity Level of physical attractiveness Age, educational status, and religion Race and ethnicity Why Similarity? Share similar interests and activities Communicate better Confirm own views and experiences Supportive of values and beliefs

Role of Similarity in Relationships Caption: Percentage of couples in various types of relationships that are homophilous for age, educational status, and religion

Falling in Love Reciprocity When someone shows they like us, we tend to like them back Increases in self-esteem Increases likelihood of relationship enduring

Falling in Love Physical Attractiveness Belief that “what’s beautiful is good” Offer status by association Most important in early stages May be an indicator of physical health Heterosexual males place greater emphasis on physical attractiveness

Attachment Attachment: Intense emotional tie between two individuals Adult attachments are influenced by our attachment to caregiver in infancy Attachment Style (Ainsworth) Secure attachment Insecure attachment Anxious-ambivalent attachment Avoidant attachment

Attachment Attachment styles in adulthood Paired couples often are similar in their attachment styles Attachment style affects interaction in relationship

Attachment Styles and Relationships Caption: Impact of attachment styles on intimate relationships.

Issues in Loving Relationships Relationship between love and sex Relationship between the two is not always clear Consider “hook-ups” and “friends with benefits” Questions to ask: Does sexual intimacy deepen a love relationship? Do men and women have different views of sex and love?

Sexual Orientation Attitudes About Love and Sex Stereotype same-sex relationships as primarily sexual Generally seek loving, trusting, and caring relationships that embrace many dimensions of sharing Sex differences among lesbians and gay men are consistent with general sex difference in attitudes toward love and sex Gay men are more likely than lesbians to separate love from sex Lesbians more likely to postpone sex until intimacy has been established

Jealousy in Relationships Jealousy-prone person Low self-esteem High value on wealth and popularity Negative consequences Precipitates partner violence Stifles relationship development Raises anxiety, depression, and anger Sex differences Women more likely to acknowledge feelings of jealousy Men tend to focus more on sexual involvement with another

Maintaining Relationship Satisfaction Ingredients in a lasting love relationship Self-acceptance Appreciation of each other’s qualities Commitment Good communication, realistic expectations, and shared interests Ability to face and deal with conflict

Maintaining Relationship Satisfaction Characteristics of high quality relationships Supportive communication Companionship Sexual expression and variety Seeing partner as best friend Maintaining frequent positive interaction

Maintaining Relationship Satisfaction Sexual Variety Communication is critical Be spontaneous Plan for intimate time Don’t worry about frequency “standards”

Discovering Partner’s Needs Ask questions Yes/No questions Open-ended questions Either/Or questions Self-disclosure Discuss sexual preferences Give permission Learn to make requests

Taking Responsibility Make requests specific Use “I” language Expressing and receiving complaints Choose right time and place Temper complaints with praise Avoid “why” questions Limit to one complaint per discussion Ask clarifying questions Express your feelings Focus on future changes

Talking: Getting Started Reading and discussing Sharing sexual histories Listening and feedback Active listening Providing feedback Maintaining eye contact Support communication efforts

Saying No Three step approach Show appreciation for invitation Say no in a clear, unequivocal fashion Offer alternatives

Non-Verbal Sexual Communication Facial expressions Interpersonal distance Touching Sounds

Communication Patterns in Relationships Gottman’s constructive communication tactics Leveling and editing Validating Volatile dialogue Gottman’s destructive communication tactics Criticism Contempt Defensiveness Stonewalling Belligerence