African American English Wolfram & Schilling-Estes Chapter 7

“the paradigm case of ethnicity- based language diversity” “Ebonics,” African American English, African American Vernacular English, African American Language, Black English, Negro English “Ebonics,” African American English, African American Vernacular English, African American Language, Black English, Negro English Scholarly analysis Scholarly analysis Media attention: 1960s, late 1970s, 1990s, early 21 st century (linguistic profiling) Media attention: 1960s, late 1970s, 1990s, early 21 st century (linguistic profiling)

No genetic basis for language differentiation “There is no foundation for maintaining that there is a genetic basis for the kind of language differentiation evidenced by some African Americans.” (p. 212) “There is no foundation for maintaining that there is a genetic basis for the kind of language differentiation evidenced by some African Americans.” (p. 212) “…labels such as African American English and European American English refer to socially constructed ethnolinguistic entities rather than genetically determined language varieties.” (p. 212) “…labels such as African American English and European American English refer to socially constructed ethnolinguistic entities rather than genetically determined language varieties.” (p. 212)

The Three Main Issues re AAE (1) the relation of AAE to comparable Anglo American vernacular varieties (1) the relation of AAE to comparable Anglo American vernacular varieties (2) the origin and early development of AAVE (2) the origin and early development of AAVE (3) the nature of language change currently taking place in this variety, including its development into a widely recognized symbol of cultural identity (3) the nature of language change currently taking place in this variety, including its development into a widely recognized symbol of cultural identity

7.1 The Status of European American and African American Vernaculars There is a restricted subset of features unique to AAVE (all others are shared) There is a restricted subset of features unique to AAVE (all others are shared) Frequency of occurrence of common features is important in differentiating varieties Frequency of occurrence of common features is important in differentiating varieties “The uniqueness of AAVE lies more in the particular array of structures that comprise the dialect than it does in the restricted set of potentially unique structures.” “The uniqueness of AAVE lies more in the particular array of structures that comprise the dialect than it does in the restricted set of potentially unique structures.” Regional variation within AAVE, but common core of features shared across regions = strong ethnic association of this variety Regional variation within AAVE, but common core of features shared across regions = strong ethnic association of this variety

“camouflaged forms” She came running She came running She come acting like she was real mad She come acting like she was real mad He calls himself a cook He calls himself a cook He calls himself dancing He calls himself dancing

7.2 The Origin and Early Development of AAE The Anglicist Hypothesis The Anglicist Hypothesis The Creolist Hypothesis The Creolist Hypothesis The Neo-Anglicist Hypothesis The Neo-Anglicist Hypothesis The Substrate Hypothesis The Substrate Hypothesis

The Anglicist Hypothesis the roots of AAVE can be traced to the same source as Anglo American dialects: British dialects the roots of AAVE can be traced to the same source as Anglo American dialects: British dialects

The Creolist Hypothesis AAVE developed from a “creole” language, similar to other English-based creoles in African and the Caribbean, vestige found in “Gullah,” went through “decreolization” AAVE developed from a “creole” language, similar to other English-based creoles in African and the Caribbean, vestige found in “Gullah,” went through “decreolization” Developed during 1970s and 1980s: “Black on White” in the Story of English Developed during 1970s and 1980s: “Black on White” in the Story of English

New data to challenge the Creolist Hypothesis: WPA ex-slave narratives, letters, etc. (earlier AAVE not as distinct from Anglo varieties as the Creolist Hypothesis would predict) WPA ex-slave narratives, letters, etc. (earlier AAVE not as distinct from Anglo varieties as the Creolist Hypothesis would predict) Black expatriate insular varieties of English Black expatriate insular varieties of English Examination of the sociohistorical situation and the demographics of the antebellum South Examination of the sociohistorical situation and the demographics of the antebellum South

The Neo-Anglicist Hypothesis Earlier postcolonial African American speech was directly linked to the early British dialects brought to North America, but AAE has since diverged so that it is now quite distinct from contemporary European American vernacular speech Earlier postcolonial African American speech was directly linked to the early British dialects brought to North America, but AAE has since diverged so that it is now quite distinct from contemporary European American vernacular speech

The Substrate Hypothesis Even though earlier AAE may have incorporated many features from regional varieties of English in America, its durable substrate effects have always distinguished it from other varieties of American English (whereas Neo-Anglicist claims that earlier form was identical) Even though earlier AAE may have incorporated many features from regional varieties of English in America, its durable substrate effects have always distinguished it from other varieties of American English (whereas Neo-Anglicist claims that earlier form was identical) Examples of features from language contact: Examples of features from language contact: –Inflectional –s absence: She go –Copula absence: He ugly –Word-final consonant cluster reduction: Lif’ up

7.3 The Contemporary Development of AAE Labov claims divergence based on a few features Labov claims divergence based on a few features Wolfram challenges that claim, although he points out that young African Americans are apparently not participating in the Northern Cities Shift and the Southern Shift as identified by Labov Wolfram challenges that claim, although he points out that young African Americans are apparently not participating in the Northern Cities Shift and the Southern Shift as identified by Labov

7.3 The Contemporary Development of AAE The emergence of an increasingly coherent nationwide African American culture (“supraregional norm”) The emergence of an increasingly coherent nationwide African American culture (“supraregional norm”) “oppositional identity” “oppositional identity” Hip Hop Hip Hop

7.4 Conclusion AAE is a distinct, robust, and stable socioethnic dialect of English AAE is a distinct, robust, and stable socioethnic dialect of English More research is needed into the relationship to identity More research is needed into the relationship to identity More research is needed into possible characteristics at other levels of dialect More research is needed into possible characteristics at other levels of dialect