Middle Childhood: Cognitive Development CHAPTER 12 Middle Childhood: Cognitive Development

Learning Outcomes LO1 Describe the developments in Piaget’s concrete-operational stage, focusing on examples of decentration, such as conservation and seriation. LO2 Discuss the theories of moral development of Piaget and Kohlberg. LO3 Discuss information processing in middle childhood, focusing on developments in selective attention and memory. LO4 Discuss theories, measurement, and determinants of intelligence, and the relationship of intelligence to achievement and creativity. LO5 Discuss language development in middle childhood, emphasizing vocabulary, grammar, reading, and bilingualism. © Workbook Stock/Jupiterimages

TRUTH OR FICTION? T-F Don’t try the “Yes, but” defense with a 5-year-old. If you did it, you’re guilty, even if it was an accident. T-F Memorizing the alphabet requires that children keep 26 chunks of information in mind at once. T-F An IQ is a score on a test. T-F Two children can answer exactly the same items on an intelligence test correctly, yet one can be above average in intelligence and the other below average. T-F Highly intelligent children are creative. T-F Adopted children are more similar in intelligence to their adoptive parents than to their biological parents. T-F Bilingual children do not encounter more academic problems than children who speak only one language. Truth or Fiction? Pre-Quiz. Good to open class discussion on topics covered in this chapter. Answers are disbursed throughout the slides as encountered. © iStockphoto.com

LO1 Piaget: The Concrete-Operational Stage © Workbook Stock/Jupiterimages

Piaget: The Concrete-Operational Stage Concrete-Operational Stage: (Third Stage) From 7-12 years of age Children show beginnings of logic and focus is on tangible (concrete) objects Thought is now reversible and flexible Children are less ego-centric Also now engage in decentration (the ability to focus on multiple parts of a problem at once) © Garry Monahan/iStockphoto.com

Piaget: The Concrete-Operational Stage Conservation The concept that objects can have several properties or dimensions simultaneously Children at this stage now show understanding of the laws of conservation. Recall the experiment of placing equal amounts of water in different shape containers; pre-operational children are unable to judge the value that the amount of water remains the same even though one container looks taller than the other Now the child will readily grasp there is the same amount of water.

Piaget: The Concrete-Operational Stage Transitivity Understanding of this concept is tested by demonstrating the ability to place objects in a series, or order, according to some property or trait they possess. This is known as Seriation. Pre-operational children cannot put in order more than one property at a time. Concrete-operational children, age 7-8 yrs, can work with more than one dimension at a time.

Figure 12.2 – A Grid for Demonstrating the Development of Seriation

Piaget: The Concrete-Operational Stage Class Inclusion The ability to differentiate subclasses of objects The Pre-Operational child may not be able to discriminate between “dogs” and “animals.” The Concrete-Operational child is now able to understand that “dog” is part of a larger class “animal.”

Piaget: The Concrete-Operational Stage Applications of Piaget’s Theory to Education Piaget believed learning involves active discovery. Teachers should use interesting and stimulating materials rather than simply try to impose knowledge. Instruction should be geared to the child’s level of development. Learning to see others’ perspective is key to cognition and morality. Teachers should promote group discussions and interactions among students.

LO2 Moral Development: The Child as Judge © Workbook Stock/Jupiterimages

Moral Development: The Child as Judge Moral reasoning is related to a child’s overall cognitive development. Both Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg believed moral reasoning follows similar cognitive-developmental patterns world wide. The individual cultural settings exert influence on moral development but there is still an orderly unfolding of cognitive processes.

Moral Development: The Child as Judge Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development Stage 1: Moral Realism (Objective Morality) About age 5 children: Judge correct behavior as conforming to authority or following the rules Perceive rules as embedded in structure of things Rules reflect reality: moral realism Rules are seen as absolute with no consideration for meeting social needs of people The concept of immanent justice (automatic retributions) disallows children at this stage to separate intentional from accidental thus does not allow exclusion from punishment for accidental injuries. At this stage, the amount of damage is more relevant than the intentions of the wrongdoer.

Moral Development: The Child as Judge Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development, con’t. Stage 2: Autonomous Morality Age 9-11 Moral judgments become more self-governed. Children see rules as agreements subject to change when circumstances warrant. They can now focus on multiple dimensions; so can see rules and motives as separate considerations They also now have greater capacity to empathize. Decentration and empathy allow weighing of intentions versus amount of damage as consideration in judgments Accidents are less likely to be viewed as crimes.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Kohlberg emphasized importance of viewing morals from someone else’s perspective. He argued that developmental stages of moral reasoning follow the same sequence in all children. Stating children progress at different rates and not all reach the highest stage For early and middle childhood, he placed the reasons for judgments into two levels of development with 2 stages in each level (4 stages in all).

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development The Preconventional Level: Children base moral judgments on the consequences of their actions. Stage 1 & 2 moral judgments most used by 7-10 year olds; after age 10 they decline Stage 1: Oriented toward obedience and punishment One is good merely to avoid being punished. Stage 2: Good behavior satisfies own needs and maybe others.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development The Conventional Level: Right and wrong are determined by conformity to family, religious, and societal standards. Stages 3 & 4 emerge during middle childhood after age 7 About 20% of 10 yr-olds conform to these stages Stage 3: Moral behavior is considered “normal” or what everyone does. It is good to meet the expectations of others. Stage 4: Moral judgments based on rules that maintain social order. Showing respect for authority and duty is highly valued.

Table 12.1 Kohlberg’s Levels and Stages of Moral Development

LO3 Information Processing © Workbook Stock/Jupiterimages

Information Processing Key elements in children’s information processing: Development of selective attention Development of capacity for memory and understanding of the memory process Development of problem-solving abilities

Information Processing Development of Selective Attention The ability to focus attention and screen out distractions Concrete-Operational children can now attend to multiple aspects of a problem at the same time. This allows conservation of number and volume.

Figure 12.3 Development of the Ability to Ignore Distractions This is Figure 12.3 on p. 202 of CDEV

Information Processing Developments in the Storage and Retrieval of Information Memory: The process of storing and retrieving information Recall Memory: Children’s memory is a good overall indicator of cognitive ability. 4th graders have better recall than 2nd graders. Metacognition and Metamemory: Metacognition: Awareness and control of one’s own cognitive abilities Metamemory: An aspect of metacognition referring specifically to awareness of the functioning of memory Older children store and retrieve information more effectively and show more knowledge of strategies used to facilitate memory. Selective rehearsal (repeating important information as way of remembering it) is used after about age 6-7. Answer to T-F? # 2 - Memorizing the alphabet requires that children keep 26 chunks of information in mind at once. FICTION - Not so, children tend to learn the alphabet by rote - that is, extensive repetition.

Information Processing Developments in the Storage and Retrieval of Information, con’t. 3 Major Structures of Memory: Sensory Memory: (sensory register) Input from the sensory organs: lasts for only a fraction of a second after which the “trace” of the stimulus decays Short Term Memory: (working memory) When focus is placed on a sensory input, it is retained in STM for about 30 seconds. Auditory stimuli last longer than visual; it helps to encode visual input as sounds and employ rehearsing as means of memory aid The capacity of short-term memory is best described as “bits” or chunks of information that can be kept in memory at one time. Typical 5-6 year olds can retain 2 chunks of information at a time but this capacity increases with maturity; an adult can retain about 7 chunks give or take 2 Rote learning: is simple associative learning based on repetition Answer to T-F? # 2 - Memorizing the alphabet requires that children keep 26 chunks of information in mind at once. FICTION - Not so, children tend to learn the alphabet by rote - that is, extensive repetition.

Information Processing 3 Major Structures of Memory, con’t. Long Term Memory: If something in STM is attended to, it can be dedicated to long term memory, a vast storehouse of a lifetime of information. There is no known limit on the quantity of information humans can retain. If someone is unable to retrieve information, it is most likely due to lack of knowing where to find it (similar to misfiling in a file cabinet). Older children are most likely to use rote rehearsal when trying to remember something. But a more effective way to promote memory retrieval is by using elaborative strategy, the method of relating new material to already known material. *note to editor - elaborative strategy is also known as “anchoring”

Information Processing 3 Major Structures of Memory, cont. Long Term Memory, cont. Organization in Long-Term Memory Preschoolers tend to organize memories by grouping objects according to general functional categories. In middle childhood, the organization becomes more narrowed and specific. When items are correctly categorized, children are more likely to recall them accurately. Knowledge in a particular area increases the capacity to store and retrieve related information. *note to editor - elaborative strategy is also known as “anchoring” © Milos Luzanin/iStockphoto.com / © Jaimie D. Travis/iStockphoto.com

Figure 12.4 – The Structure of Memory

Children’s Eyewitness Testimony When a child is an eyewitness to an event, they are typically asked questions to prompt information. Caution must be used to avoid “leading questions” or questions that suggest an answer. By the age of 10-11, children are no more susceptible than adults but younger children are more likely to be misled. Repeated questioning may lead a child to fabricate events that never happened. *note to editor: Eyewitness testimony carries the most weight in a court of law…however, it is the most unreliable form of evidence there is.

LO4 Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement © Workbook Stock/Jupiterimages

Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement At an early age, we form impressions of our intelligence by comparison to others. We associate intelligence with academic success, career advancement, and good social skills. Intelligence is an intangible quality making measurement difficult. Intelligence: underlying competence or learning ability Achievement: the performance of acquired competencies Many of the competencies underlying intelligence are seen during middle childhood, when most children are first exposed to formal schooling.

Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement Topics to be Covered: Theories of Intelligence Measurements of Intelligence Patterns of Intelligence Differences in Intellectual Development Creativity and Intellectual Development Determinants of Intellectual Development

Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement Theories of Intelligence Factor Theories: Spearman: Intelligent behaviors have a common underlying factor g, which stands for general intelligence: representing broad reasoning and problem-solving abilities. He also noted people seem more capable in some areas than in others, suggesting that specific capacities or s factors account for certain individual abilities. Thurstone: Intelligence consists of several specific, independent factors or primary mental abilities. Visual-spatial, perceptual speed, numerical, semantics, rapid word acquisition, reasoning

Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement Theories of Intelligence, con’t. Sternberg’s “Triarchic” Theory of Intelligence: Analytical Intelligence: Academic ability; problem-solving; acquiring new knowledge Creative Intelligence: Ability to cope with new situations and to profit from experience Ability to perceive similarities and differences, fostering adaptation Practical Intelligence: “Street smarts”: enables people to adapt to the demands of their environment, both physical and social

Figure 12.5 – Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement Theories of Intelligence, con’t. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences: Verbal: language skills Logical/mathematical: math and reasoning skills Spatial: visual orientation Bodily/kinesthetic: athleticism Musical: composing and playing Interpersonal: relating to others Intrapersonal: self-insight Individuals may show great “intelligence” in one area without notable ability in others. Critics agree people may have special “talents” but question whether they are “intelligences.”

Figure 12.6 – Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement Measurement of Intellectual Development Thousands of intelligence tests are administered by psychologists and educators every day. There are a variety of test instruments, the two most widely used are: The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS) The Wechsler Scales The concept of intelligence per se is difficult to define. Tests are frequently revised and used to make vital educational decisions about children. A score on an intelligence test may well determine the placement of a child in special classes for mentally retarded or gifted children. Answer to T-F? # 3 - An IQ is a score on a test. TRUE - intelligence is measured by tests which yield scores called intelligence quotients, or IQs.

Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement Measurement of Intellectual Development The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS) Originated in 1905 by Binet and Simon for use in the French school system Adapted for use with American children in 1916 by Terman at Stanford University, thus the name currently in use: Stanford-Binet It measures IQ by using the formula: IQ = MA/CA X 100 IQ=Intell. Quotient - MA=Mental Age - CA=Chronological Age Therefore, if two children answer all the questions the same but one is younger than the other, their IQ scores will be different, with the younger child having a higher IQ score. Answer to T-F? # 4 Two children can answer exactly the same items on an intelligence test correctly, yet one can be above average n intelligence and the other below average. TRU - the younger of the two children would obtain a higher IQ score.

Table 12.2 – Items Similar to Those on the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale

Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement Measurement of Intellectual Development, con’t. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC): school age children Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI): preschool children Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) Test questions are grouped into subsets: Verbal tasks: test knowledge of verbal concepts Performance tasks: test spatial-relations concepts

Table 12.3 – Kinds of Items Found on Wechsler’s Intelligence Scales

Figure 12.7 – Performance Items on an Intelligence Test This is Figure 12.7 on p. 210 of CDEV

Figure 12.8 – Variations in IQ Scores This is Figure 12.8 on p. 211 of CDEV

Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement Measurement of Intellectual Development, con’t. The Testing Controversy: There may be racial and cultural biases inherent in intelligence testing instruments. Cultural Bias: African American and Latino/a American children’s performances may be compromised by SES disadvantages and/or lack of motivation and self-confidence. Culture-Free (Culture-Fair) Cattell’s Culture-Fair Intelligence Test evaluates without reliance on expressive language abilities but tests for comprehension of rules governing geometric designs. However, middle class children still outperform lower-class children. Culture-free tests do not predict academic success as well as other intelligence tests, and scholastic aptitude remains the central concern of educators.

Figure 12.9 – Sample Items from Cattell’s Culture-Fair Intelligence Test

Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement Patterns of Intellectual Development Many factors influence changes in IQ scores, including changes in the home, SES circumstances, and education. Intellectual growth occurs in at least two major spurts: First at about age 6 Coinciding with entry into school which may help to crystallize intellectual functioning And shifting from preoperational to concrete-operational thought Second at about age 10-11 By middle childhood, children seem to show more stable patterns in gains but there are still spurts. Intelligence tests gain greater predictive power. But individual differences still exist.

Figure 12.10 – Five Patterns of Change in IQ Scores for Children in the Fels Longitudinal Study This is Figure 12.10 on p. 212 of CDEV Source: McCall et al. (1973).

Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement Differences in Intellectual Development The average IQ score in the U.S. is 100. Half the children in the U.S. score from 90 -110. 95% attain scores between 70 -130. Below 70 = “mentally retarded” Significant limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior 80% are mildly retarded: adjust to society as a whole Moderately retarded: such as Down Syndrome children function with supervision Profoundly retarded: totally dependent Causes: Biological: genetic disorders, brain damage, etc Cultural-familial retardation: biologically normal but due to impoverished environment lack intellectual and social functioning abilities

Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement Differences in Intellectual Development, con’t. Above 130 = “gifted”: having outstanding abilities Socioeconomic and Ethnic Differences in IQ: Research shows differences in IQ scores between socioeconomic and ethnic groups. Lower-class American children have scores 10-15 points lower than middle-class or upper-class. African American, Latino/a American and Native American children score below the norms for European American. Children of Asian descent frequently outscore European Americans in math and science. Asian students and families tend to attribute academic success to hard work. Americans more likely attribute it to natural ability, indicating Asian children may be working harder to attain their goals.

Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement Creativity and Intellectual Development Creativity: the ability to do things that are novel and useful Characteristics include: Solving problems with no preexisting solutions Taking chances Refusing to accept limitations Appreciation of art and music Challenging social norms Use of critical thinking skills © iStockphoto.com

Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement Creativity and Intellectual Development, cont. The relationship between creativity and intelligence depends on how one defines intelligence. Sternberg’s model includes creativity as one of the three parts of intelligence along with analytical thinking and practical intelligence. Some others argue that creativity and innovation require high levels of intelligence; but tests measuring intelligence and creativity show only moderate correlations. Tests of creativity determine how flexible, fluent, and original a person’s thinking is. Answer to T-F? # 5 - Highly intelligent children are creative. FICTION _ Not necessarily; this statement would be generally true in Sternberg’s theory, which considers creativity to be an aspect of intelligence; however,children with average IQ scores may excel in creative activities such as art and music.

Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement Creativity and Intellectual Development, con’t. Convergent thinking: Most commonly used to arrive at correct answers on IQ tests. Thought is limited to present facts; thinking is narrowed to arrive at correct answer; process of elimination is used as in multiple choice questions Divergent thinking: Child associates freely to the elements of the problem. Used when trying to generate ideas

Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement Determinants of Intellectual Development Overall, studies suggest the heritability of intelligence is between 40% and 60%. Making genetic factors the explanation for about half the differences in IQ scores among individuals Studies of environmental influences show enriched environments help children attain higher IQ and achievement test scores. Many psychologists believe heredity and environment interact influence intelligence. Answer to T-F? # 6 - Adopted children are more similar in intelligence to their adoptive parents than to their biological parents. FICTION - Actually, correlations between the IQ scores of children and their natural parents (+0.48) are higher than those between children and adoptive parents (+0.18), suggestive of the role of genetic factors in intellectual functioning.

Figure 12.11 – Findings of Studies of the Relationship Between IQ Scores and Heredity Source: Bouchard, et al. (1990).

LO5 Language Development and Literacy © Workbook Stock/Jupiterimages

Language Development Vocabulary and Grammar By age 6, children have a vocabulary of about 10,000 words. By age 7-9, they realize words can have multiple meanings (enabling semantic sophistication required to understand humor and jokes). By middle childhood, children understand passive sentences, can use connectives, and form indirect object/direct object constructions.

Language Development Reading Skills and Literacy Millions of people around the world are illiterate, limiting their access contemporary knowledge. Illiteracy is found in the U.S. also, most severe among recent immigrants. Reading involves perceptual, cognitive, and linguistic processes, relying on integration of visual and auditory information. Children must accurately perceive sounds and make basic visual discriminations. Exposure to written language comes from TV, environmental information, and parents reading to their children. Children who are exposed to reading from an early age are better prepared for learning to read.

Table 12.4 – Literacy Rates of 15- to 24-Year-Olds, 2000-2004 © Image Source

Language Development Methods of Teaching Reading Children read by integrating visual and auditory information. Most children and adults use a combination of the two methods. Some words can only be read by recognition, providing children with basic sight-vocabulary. Word-recognition method: Associates visual stimuli with sound combinations to produce the spoken words Acquired by rote learning or extensive repetition Phonetic method: Child learns to associate written letters and letter combinations with the sounds they indicate in order to “sound out” words. Provides skills to use in decoding new words

Language Development Bilingualism: Linguistic Perspectives on the World In 2000, approximately 47 million Americans spoke a language other than English at home. Bilingual (using two languages with equal skill) children do not encounter more academic problems than those speaking one language. A century ago it was widely believed that having two linguistic systems crowded a limited mental capacity. Most bilingual speakers do “mix” languages somewhat but can generally separate them at an early age. Today in America about half the children speaking Spanish at home are proficient in English. Most linguists today consider bilingualism to be an advantage because knowledge of more than one language contributes to the complexity of cognitive process making them more cognitively flexible. Answer to T-F? # 7 - Bilingual children do not encounter more academic problems than children who speak only one language. TRU and bilingualism may very well contribute to children’s cognitive complexity.

Table 12.5 – Languages Most Often Spoken at Home According to English Ability for U.S. Residents 5 Years of Age and Above © Image Source