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Scientific Writing Style & Structure

Scientific Writing “If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.” – Isaac Newton … sort of.

General Considerations for Scientific Writing Thoroughly understand your sources. Support everything with evidence, and distinguish fact from possibility. Know your audience. Never make your readers work harder than they have to.

Understanding Your Sources Scientific writing rarely uses direct quotation. Extensive paraphrasing often indicates a lack of understanding. Information from other sources, if used, will usually be summarized. Don’t be afraid to ask questions!

Questioning Your Sources What specific questions were asked? How was the study designed, and how did the design of the study address the question posed? What are the specific results of the study? How convincing are they? What assumptions were made? Did they seem reasonable? What contribution does the study make toward answering the original question? What aspects of the original question remain unanswered? -from A Short Guide to Writing about Biology by Jan A. Pechenik

In this paper, preliminary investigation was conducted to evaluate the potential ecological risk of heavy metals contamination in cemetery soils. Necrosol samples were collected from within and around the vicinity of the largest mass grave in Rwanda and analyzed for heavy metal concentrations using total digestion- inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and instrumental neutron activation analysis. The preliminary results revealed that the associated cemetery soils are only contaminated to a low degree. On the other hand, assessment of the potential ecological risk index (RI) revealed that cumulative heavy metal content of the soil does not pose any significant ecological risks. These findings, therefore, suggest that, while cemetery soils may be toxic due to the accumulation of certain heavy metals, their overall ecological risks may be minimal and insignificant. -from “Potential Ecological Risk of Heavy Metal Distribution in Cemetery Soils” Amuno, SA. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution (Feb 2013): 1-12.

Support Everything with Evidence… All statements, whether fact or opinion, require support. You may, for example, use… Peer-reviewed Journals Quantitative Results (including your own data!) Government Reports Be critical of the sources you use to support your assertions.

… and Distinguish Fact from Possibility. Statements in a scientific paper need a significant consensus to meet the requirements of a “fact.” You may form an opinion, but can you support it to scientific standards? Use verbs like suggest, seem, appear, exhibit, indicate, point to, express, and assert. “If [x] is true, then [y].”

Fact or possibility? 1.Anecdotal evidence suggests that cockroaches respond to electrical appliances or outlets. 2.Cockroach infestation was found in 45 (65.2%) institutions and 558 cockroaches were collected. 3.Disgust and fear are basic emotions that protect humans against pathogens and/or predators.

Never make your readers work harder than they have to. Don’t make your readers guess the significance of your assertions. Tell them! Move logically from one point to the next, and make sure your writing shows the progression of your ideas. Be clear, be correct, and be concise! Seriously. Be concise.

“Write to illuminate, not to impress. Use the simplest words and the simplest phrasing consistent with that goal.” – Jan A. Pechenik

Concise Writing In order to be able to examine and analyze our data, we utilized a number of computer software packages dedicated to conducting statistical evaluations. - sentence from an undergraduate science paper

We used statistical software to analyze our data. - suggested revision

It was found that the shell lengths of live snails tended to be larger for individuals collected closer to the low tide mark (Fig. 1).

Snails found closer to the low tide mark typically had larger shells (Fig. 1).

Transitions The energy needs of a resting otter are 3 times those of terrestrial animals of comparable size. The sea otter eats about 25% of its body weight daily. Sea otters feed at night as well as during the day.

The energy needs of a resting otter are 3 times those of terrestrial animals of comparable size. To support such a high metabolic rate, the sea otter must eat about 25% of its body weight daily. Moreover, sea otters feed continually, at night as well as during the day.

Know Your Audience Who are you writing to? The answer to this question should help determine the choices you make while writing. Make your paper self-sufficient: define terms, explain abbreviations, clarify details. Don’t assume pre-existing knowledge that your readers might not have. Your audience for a scientific paper will have certain expectations for format, tone, and style.

Active vs. Passive Voice Active: We have determined the target market to be adults between the ages of 30 and 45. Passive: The target market was determined to be adults between the ages of 30 and 45. Who’s doing what to whom? Active voice identifies the actor. Passive puts the object being acted on first. Check which style your professor prefers. 20

Audience Expectations Your audience will usually expect a specific organization for your paper: IMRaD Introduction, Methods/Materials, Results and Discussion “The text of an article … will usually be some variation of the IMRaD form.” - from Scientific Style and Format: The CSE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers by The Council of Science Editors

What Is an Abstract? Summary of a longer document Describes content and scope of the document Highlights major points

Who Is the Audience? Researchers Scholars Conference organizers Conference attendees Readers Author Meier, K. V. Institution Western Ontario University, London, Ontario, Canada. Title A meditation on critical mass in the philosophy of sport. Source Journal of the Philosophy of Sport : ref. Abstract The paper explores the contemporary state, in North America, of philosophic interchange among scholars interested in the better understanding of sport. The emergence of scholarly writing in this area, and its development into an academic discipline, is followed by an analysis of the productivity of North American based philosophers of sport and a determination of the publication record in selected journals. Investigations revealed a lack of 'critical mass' - only 46 authors with two or more published works in the philosophy of sport during the years The paper concludes with an assessment of problems of direction, structure and content currently evident in a field which has not become a widely practiced specialty within the discipline of philosophy.

Abstracts must contain key words about what is essential in the main document. Key words are used to classify abstracts in databases. Effective key words allow researchers to search for your publication easily. Key Words

Checklist Have you included the following? Subject Scope Purpose Methods Results Recommendations, implications, or significance Key words

Introduction Usually brief Generally written in present tense Establishes the framework for the entire paper.  Background information that leads to a clear statement of the specific issue(s) your paper will address (the topic)  Specific statement about a particular issue related to the topic (the problem)  An argument that justifies the study – why did you write this paper/conduct this research? (the justification) Stick to the point! Only include information that is directly relevant to the paper.

Methods/Materials Generally written in past tense A balanced level of detail–enough to replicate your results without overwhelming your reader Remember–be precise! How did you collect your information, and what did you do with it?  Include formulas, measurements, software, locations, test subjects, alien invasions … everything!  Consider any factor that may have influenced your results.

Results Usually written in past tense What did you find out? Present your results without interpretation. Don’t exclude information, even if it conflicts with your expectations or with your hypothesis.

Discussion Typically written in present tense What do the results mean?  What did you expect, and why?  Did the results match your expectations?  How do your results compare to the work of earlier researchers?  Based on your results, what questions would you ask next? Remember to clearly distinguish facts from possibilities.

Thoroughly understand your sources. Support everything with evidence, and distinguish fact from possibility. Know your audience. Never make your readers work harder than they have to. Review

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