Chapter Seven Expanding Social Horizons: Socioemotional Development in Middle Childhood

The Family as a System Remember Systems theory from beginning of class? Older views saw child development as primarily the result of parents’ actions Current views of child rearing view the family as a system with parents and children affecting each other In addition, the family system is impacted by outside influences such as extended family, community, and even larger entities

Caption: In a systems view of families, parents and children influence each other; this interacting family unit is also influenced by other forces outside of the family.

Dimensions & Styles of Parenting Parenting can be viewed through the dimension of warmth and responsiveness Children of warm parents feel secure, happy, and are more well-behaved Children of hostile or uninvolved parents may be anxious and less controlled

Dimensions & Styles of Parenting (Cont) The dimension of control affects parenting effectiveness Children of over-controlling parents may feel unable to develop standards of behavior on their own A balance of good control, communication, and warmth results in children with an understanding of what is expected and invites dialogue

Parenting Styles Authoritarian parenting combines high control with little warmth Hard work, respect, and obedience are encouraged. There is little give-and-take and parents do not explain their decisions Authoritative parenting combines more control with warmth and responsiveness They explain rules and encourage decision

Parenting Styles (Cont) Indulgent-permissive parenting provides warmth with little control Use little punishment and accept their children’s behavior Indifferent-uninvolved parenting involves little warmth or control Parents are not involved with their children except to provide for basic physical and emotional needs. They minimize their time with their children

Caption: Combining the two dimensions of parental behavior (warmth and control) creates four prototypical styles of parenting.

Parenting Styles How do they Effects Development? Styles of parenting have different effects on children’s development Authoritative parents’ children tend to be more responsible, self-reliant, and friendly Authoritarian parents’ children have lower self-esteem and are less skilled socially Children of indulgent-permissive parents are often impulsive and easily frustrated Children of indifferent-uninvolved parents often have low self-esteem, and are aggressive, impulsive, and moody

Variations Associated with Culture and Socioeconomic Status European-American parents tend to value warmth and moderate control in order to encourage independence and self-reliance In Asian and Latin American countries, individualism is not as highly valued, and cooperation and collaboration are encouraged by more emotional restraint and control

Parental Behavior Parents who use direct instruction tell children what to do, and when and why Most powerful when combined with modeling Learning by observation is effective, especially if paired with counterimitation, or learning what should not be done

Feedback The negative reinforcement trap occurs when a child cries, complains, or whines until the parent relents and provides what the child desires Punishment is most effective when it is Immediate Consistent Informative (providing an explanation and a way to avoid it in the future) Administered by a person with whom the child has a warm and affectionate relationship

Punishment Has side-effects and drawbacks, such as being only temporarily effective Children, upset by punishment, may not understand the purpose of the consequence Physical punishment may result in aggression as a means to resolve disputes with other children Time-out, a consequence of misbehavior in which the child sits alone in a boring location, is brief, effective, and informative

Influences of the Marital System Research demonstrates that chronic parental conflict is harmful to children Jeopardizes children’s feelings of a stable family Affects the parent-child relationship Parents in conflict may be too preoccupied for high quality parenting

Children’s Contributions: Reciprocal Influence Children’s characteristics affect how parents treat them Age Temperament and behavior

Siblings As families grow, sibling relationships become more complex Toddlers talk more to mothers than to older siblings By 4- years old, children talk more to older siblings than to mothers One effect of a sibling’s birth is that fathers interact more with older children The birth of another child is stressful and may result in withdrawal or regression (acting more immature)

Adopted Children 2-4% of U.S. children are adopted Adopted children are more likely to be prone to conduct disorders and adjustment problems in school These problems are more likely the older the child’s age at the time of adoption, and is related to the quality of care before adoption Most adopted children do quite well

Impact of Birth Order one of professor’s favorite topics First-Born Children Parents are enthusiastic but inexperienced Parents are demanding and have high expectations Often have higher IQ scores, are more conforming, and are more likely to go to college

Impact of Birth Order Later-Born Children Are less concerned about pleasing parents Are more popular with peers and more innovative Only Children Contrary to myth, are not more spoiled or egotistical Succeed more often in school and have higher levels of IQ, leadership, autonomy, and maturity

Divorce and Remarriage In the 1990s, 50% of all U.S. children experienced their parents’ divorce After divorce, children tend to live with mothers In research, mothers were less affectionate with children in the first months after divorce Parents were less able to control their children 2 years after divorce, mothers were more affectionate and better able to discipline 6 years after divorce, mothers and daughters were closer, with mothers and sons in conflict

What Aspects of Children’s Lives are Affected by Divorce? Research shows that school achievement, conduct, adjustment, self-concept, and parent-child relations faired poorly compared to children of intact families Adolescents of divorced parents are more likely to become teen parents and to become divorced themselves There is a small, but significant increase in emotional problems of adult children of divorced parents

Impact of Divorce on Children Development may be affected by loss of a parent role model, economic hardship, and parental conflict Children are more affected during childhood and adolescence than preschool or college ages Children who are more emotional may be more negatively impacted by divorce Reward with warmth, support, communication. Parental cooperation and same-sex custody are positive in their impact

Blended Families More than 2/3 of divorced men and women remarry, resulting in blended families While school-age boys benefit from presence of a stepfather, girls do not adjust well to their mother’s remarriage Research on children living with remarried father is sparse. Usually results in behavior problems, with children less likely to adjust well

Parent-Child Relationships Gone Awry: Child Maltreatment Very Important to know!! Physical Abuse - assault leading to physical injuries Sexual Abuse - fondling, intercourse, or other sexual behaviors Psychological Abuse - ridicule, rejection, or humiliation Neglect - inadequate food, clothing, or medical care

What are some of the proposed causes of abuse? Some countries’ culture does not allow for physical punishment. Countries that have a culture that allows for spanking have higher rates of maltreatment The stress of poverty is correlated with abuse as is social isolation Infants, preschoolers, and frequently ill children are more often abused Isolated, uneducated, and teenage mothers more likely to abuse

Effects of Abuse on Children Abused children tend to have poor peer relationships Children of abuse do poorly in school Adults who were abused as children experience more depression and anxiety and are more likely to abuse their children-not necessarily only 30% of those who were abused abuse. Where the impact is more likely is in criminality. 85-90% of those who are incarcerated report being abused.

Preventing Abuse & Maltreatment Reducing physical punishment can help Maintaining social supports can give parents opportunities for venting and advise Counseling and parenting skills training can help

Types of Intervention Not in your textbook VERY IMPORTANT!!!!! Primary Intervention-occurs before abuse happens and targets the general population in campaign to stop a problem. For example, commercials on TV that address the problem of violence. •Secondary Intervention-also intervene before a problem occurs but now a specific target population is addressed. For example, a program in high schools where teen mothers are given support.

Types of Intervention Pay Close attention to question at bottom of slide! Tertiary Intervention- This intervention occurs after the problem has occurred. For example, in the United States this is children’s services and foster care which both occur after abuse. •Which type of intervention do you think costs the least? Which type costs the most? Which does the USA use the most for social problems?

Friendships By 4-8 years, children single out specific peers as playmates At 8 or 9, children have their first intimate and reciprocal relationships Older children and adolescents emphasize loyalty in friendships By about 14, friendships consist of intimacy and support during stressful periods. Less dependence on family

Who Are Friends? Friends tend to be same-sexed, similar aged, and from the same race or ethnic group Friends tend to have similar interests, attitudes, and recreational pursuits Children with same-sexed and opposite-sexed friends tend to be more popular, well- adjusted, academically successful, and have higher self-esteem than those with same-sexed only friends

Quality and Consequences of Friendships Children with good friends tend to have higher self-esteem and are less likely to be lonely or depressed Friends, particularly girls, spend much of their time talking about each other’s problems, which is known as co-rumination Children with good friends are more likely to engage in prosocial behavior Adults who had good friends as children experience greater feelings of self-worth

Groups Cliques tend to dress, talk, and act alike Members of cliques may become affiliated with others with similar values and attitudes called crowds Some crowds have more status than others and may impact self-esteem Parenting style and involvement may have impact on which crowd children affiliate with

Group Structure Often exhibit a dominance hierarchy with a leader and followers With boys, physical power is often the characteristic most often associated with leadership Among girls and older boys, individual traits that relate to the group’s main interests determine leadership

Peer Pressure Irresistible pressure to conform to the group’s norms Most junior-high and high-school students resist negative peer pressure Peer pressure is most effective when standards are not clear-cut. Subjective standards such as taste in music and clothing are examples. Also true for smoking, drinking, and drug usage

Popularity and Rejection Popular children are liked by classmates Rejected children are disliked by classmates Controversial children are both liked and disliked by classmates Average children are liked and disliked but without as much intensity Neglected children are ignored by classmates

Consequences of Rejection Rejected children are more likely to: drop out of school commit juvenile offenses suffer from psychopathology

Causes and Consequences of Rejection Parental behavior can result in imitation of poor social skills and conflict Inconsistent punishment may result in aggressive and antisocial behavior BULLYING!!!!

Caption: Some rejected children learn ineffective social skills by watching parents who use intimidation or conflict in their own conflicts.

Aggressive Children and Their Victims When a child uses aggression to achieve an explicit goal, it is called instrumental aggression Aggression that is unprovoked and is used to intimidate or harass is called hostile aggression Children’s tendency to behave aggressively is stable over time, especially if seen at a young age

Aggressive Children About 10% of elementary-school-age children and adolescents are chronic victims of aggression Children who are frequent victims are often lonely, anxious, depressed, and dislike school Victimized children may be aggressive themselves or tend to be withdrawn and submissive

Influence on Attitudes &Social Behavior Research shows frequent viewing of TV violence increases aggressive behavior 8-year-olds that were exposed to large amounts of TV violence had more extensive criminal records as 30-year-olds. Similar results were found for violent video games

Caption: Boys who viewed excessive TV violence were much more likely to have committed serious crimes as adults.

Stereotypes Some research suggests that exposure to TV may promote the acceptance of gender, race, and ethnic stereotypes by children Shows on TV do not accurately portray the demographic texture of society. Minorities and women may be under-represented and gender roles may be exaggerated Children who are heavy consumers of TV may accept these misrepresentations as reality

Caption: In the Kimball (1986) study, after children began watching TV, boys had more stereotyped views of traits, behaviors, occupations, and peer relations; girls had more stereotyped views of traits and peer relations.

Consumer Behavior Preschool children may perceive commercials as a form of entertainment By 8 or 9, children begin to understand that commercials are meant to be persuasive and may not always be truthful Children are affected by advertising, and studies show that most ask parents to buy items seen on TV

Guides for Children and TV Viewing Parents should set absolute rules concerning amount of TV to be watched Children should not watch TV out of boredom Adults should watch TV with children and discuss programs Parents should model good TV viewing, avoiding shows that are inappropriate for young viewers

Prosocial Behavior Children are more likely to act prosocially after watching brief films in which peers acted prosocially Programs such as Mr. Rogers’ Neighborhood were found to be effective in encouraging prosocial behavior, particularly in boys While these studies show that TV can promote prosocial behavior, children may not watch the appropriate shows, which are limited in number

Influences on Cognition Studies show that shows such as Sesame Street promote more proficiency at recognizing letters, numbers, counting, and vocabulary These studies confirm that TV can be a positive influence on these abilities if parents promote good viewing

Criticisms of TV Two major criticisms: TV promotes short attention spans because of high-interest short segments TV promotes passive, lazy thinkers who are less creative Findings: No support for TV promoting short attention spans Mixed findings on TV having negative impact on thinking and creativity

Describing Others By 7-years-old, children describe others in concrete terms. By 10, they use more psychological traits. At 16-years, descriptions are integrated into a cohesive account Children's descriptions begin to help them to predict how others will behave

Understanding What Others Think Selman’s Five Stages of Perspective Taking Undifferentiated (3-6 years old) Social-Informational (4-9 years old) Self-Reflective (7-12 years old) Third-Person (10-15 years old) Societal (14 years to adult)

Research Findings on Selman’s Theory Findings support prediction that children move through stages of development of perspective-taking Children at higher stages of cognitive development are at higher levels of perspective taking Children who are more advanced in perspective-taking are more well-liked by peers

Prejudice When children learn that they belong to a particular group, they learn prejudice While prejudice decreases during elementary school, it increases again during adolescence Children tend to view members of groups as more homogenous than they really are Prejudice may be related to social status. The higher the status of the group, the more positive it is viewed Prejudice may be reduced by discussions and role-play