AP European History Kagan, Ch. 17

“Enlightenment is mankind’s exit from its self- incurred immaturity.” What is immaturity? What is self-incurred? How are we to free ourselves from self-incurred immaturity? Will it be easy? What obstacles will we face? Motto of the Enlightenment Sapere aude! What does it mean?

Influences on the Enlightenment Newtonian thought Lockean thought Print Culture Public Opinion Coffeehouses Salons Political stability and economic prosperity in GB Call for administrative and economic reform in France after wars of Louis XIV T or F: The long-term influence of the Enlightenment has been the spirit of innovation and improvement that first took root within Western societies T or F: John Locke fully accepted the Christian view of humankind flawed by sin.

Birth of the Novel Writing of History Inclusion of political, economic, social, intellectual, cultural happenings over time Monthly Journals and Magazines; daily newspapers What is “low literary culture” and what effect did it have on lower- class audiences?

… that natural science should be used to examine and understand ALL elements of life Reason over and above faith – everything is critiqued …that the Scientific method can discover ALL laws of human society AND nature …in progress: it is POSSIBLE for man to create a better society (hope)

Literary figures, historians, economists Today many are thought of philosophers Not an organized group BUT agreed that religion, government/politics, economy and society needed to be reformed for the sake of human liberty All applied skepticism and rules of reason when questioning the status quo Followers = commercial class, professional urban class, forward thinking aristocracy Supported: expansion in trade; improvement in agriculture, transport and industry; enlargement of business and commercial class; transformation of society and economy

Middle class – prolific writer – died a millionaire 1717 imprisoned for insulting regent; 1726 exiled to England for barb vs. nobleman (often in exile) Fed his struggle vs. injustice and unequal treatment Newton: history’s greatest man --- Glorification of science and reason to better world Personal friend Frederick the Great – admired him as “enlightened” Voltaire lived at Sans Souci Government: Admired England “Enlightened” monarch who ruled against ignorance and thereby enlightened the state and people

Why is organized / institutionalized religion detrimental to human progress and happiness? T or F: John Toland’s Christianity Not Mysterious became an important defense of medieval Christianity during the Enlightenment Deist believe The God exists and that nature itself is proof of God’s existence. God is a rational force b/c nature is organized rationally There is life after death and it is then that the rewards and punishments for one’s actions will be administered.

T or F: All philosophes advocated for religious tolerance. What type(s) of tolerance was encouraged? (see pg. 516) Tolerance of other Christian religions Tolerance of other non-Christian religions (BUT how far were they willing to go in their tolerance?) Radical Critique of Christianity T/F: Scottish philosophe David Hume believed that the greatest miracle of Christianity was that Christians believed in miracles. T/F: Edward Gibbon in The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire argued that the supernatural forces of Christianity are what caused Rome to fall. (see handout)

Baruch Spinoza , Netherlands Secularized Judaism Pantheism vs. organized religion (which leads away from God) Jews should separate themselves from their traditional faith communities , Germany Assimilation of Judaism One can be a practicing Jew (religious community) and a loyal citizen (national community) Moses Mendelsohn T/F: Gotthold Lessing’s Nathan the Wise actually called for religious toleration of non-Christians.

Typical Understanding of Islam False religion: Muhammad = divine (not true) Muhammad – impostor and false prophet Extremely carnal b/c of harem and polygamy Unable to adapt to changing modern society Turkish women are very free and well-treated; burka often women security Praised Ottoman architecture Encouraged the adoption of smallpox vaccine Lady Mary Wortley Montagu’s opinion

Encyclopedie: 28 volumes – scientific, technical, historical knowledge (skeptical / critical of society) Contains all the great philosophes! Attempted summarization of all human knowledge! 25,000 sets sold before the French Revolution! Read by ALL – nobles, clergy, and “Third Estate” Editors: Denis Diderot, Jean Le Rond d’Alembert, volumes of text 11 volumes of illustrations What is social science?

Cesare Beccaria, On Crime and Punishment, 1764 “Such punishments…ought to be chosen as will make the strongest and most lasting impressions on the minds of others, with the least torment to the body of the criminal.” Imprisonment, physical labor, discipline Rehabilitation Punishment should be better suited to the Crime! Utilitarianism: a doctrine that the useful is the good and that the determining consideration of right conduct should be the usefulness of its consequences; specifically : a theory that the aim of action should be the largest possible balance of pleasure over pain or the greatest happiness of the greatest number

Francois Quesnay: royal court physician; economist The Economical Table, 1758 Pierre Dupont de Nemours: associate of Turgot (Dupont of US!) Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot: minister to Louis XVI: Searching for “natural laws” of economics 1) Land (agriculture) = only true source of wealth 2) Supply and demand, individual economic self- interest NOT government, should influence economy – (sound familiar?) T/F: Francois Quesnay headed a French mercantile association opposed to physiocratic thought.

Laissez faire: “let them do as they see fit” Against government regulations, price controls, mercantilism… Government should - provide defense, security and reasonable laws (even in area of economy, when needed) Economic Liberty “unleash individuals to pursue their own selfish economic interests.” pg. 521 Natural Resources Unlimited and should be exploited to the economic advantage of mankind Education, see pg. 522 T/F: Adam Smith wrote that, “All men are born free, but everywhere they are in chains,” to call attention to the need for laissez-faire economics.

Stage One Hunting and gathering = no settled life Stage Two Pastoral herding = nomadic groups with some sense of private property Stage Three Agricultural = settled with clearly delineated private property arrangements Stage Four Commercial = advanced cities; wide-spread national & international trade; mass consumption of many different types of items; elaborate property agreements

Montesquieu’s Spirit of the Laws, 1748 No one right political system for all nations Monarchical gov’t. regulated by parlements Division of power within government: executive; legislative; judicial (sound familiar?)

Sensitive / suspicious – obsessed w/conspiracy vs. him Committed to “Enlightenment” – but broke away, attacks rationalism / civilization as destroyer of the individual Basic goodness of man (influences Romanticism) Do away with elite superiority – all are equal, esp. financially Sig. contribution to Fr. Rev. --- appeals to the masses The Social Contract: (not political – but among men - “man is born free, and everywhere he is shackled” The general will: common interest uniting men - (BUT some must be forced to be free) Popular sovereignty – (Government is 2ndary to will of the people) Emile: education of male child – learning by experience – natural (BUT only for boys)

Denise Diderot, Immanuel Kant, and Johann Herder Criticized what they saw as immoral spread of European civilization and ideology at the cost of native population Different culture/appearance ≠ less humanity or less right to be respected/understood - “culture of man” What is cultural relativism? Major opponents of New World slavery

Dressing in the 18 th Century “ Mankind grew out of its self-inflicted immaturity ” (Immanuel Kant) BUT … what about the WOMEN of the Enlightenment !!!

Wife of finance minister to Louis XVI, Jacques Necker; mother of Madame de Staël Friday afternoons from during the 1770s & 1780s Necker's Notes The Marquis de Chastellux was once invited to one of Suzanne Necker's famous dinner parties. Having arrived early, he was left alone in the drawing- room where, snooping around, he found a notebook under Necker's chair. Idly leafing through its pages, he discovered that the book contained snippets of entertaining conversation. The Marquis was later amused, during the course of the meal, to hear Mme Necker reciting word for word everything which he had found written in the book. “Fortune does not change men, it unmasks them.” – S.N.

Held salon every evening for 12 years Met from 5-9pm “Politics, religion, philosophy, anecdotes, news, nothing was excluded from the conversation, an, thanks to her care, the most trivial little narrative gained, as naturally as possible, the place and notice it deserved.” Memoir of Baron de Grimm

Daughter of handkerchief weaver 1784 opened a school w/ her sister, Eliza and friend, Fanny Befriended many radical political and religious thinkers and supporters of American independence 1786 Thoughts on the Education of Girls 1789 Vindication of the Rights of Man 1790 Vindication of the Rights of Women Admired by other radical thinkers, like Tom Paine and William Blake – detested by Edmund Burke

Literary Salons of England More casual than in France, focused on moral and intellectual training Primarily women’s group Traveled, wrote, and studied together Precursors to feminists of the 19 th century The Nine Living Muses of England, by Richard Samuel, (Left to right) Elizbaeth Carter, Anna Letitia Barbauld, Angelika Kauffmann, Elizabeth Linley, Catharine Macaulay, Elizabeth Montagu, Elizabeth Griffith, Hannah More, and Charlotte Lennox.

Rococo Rococo 1715 – ► Centered in France --> associated with Louis XV. [also Germany and Italy] ► Light, elaborate, decorative style. Complex compositions. ► A backlash to the darkness of the Baroque --> less formal & grandiose. ► Gaiety, lightness, and airiness; use of pastels --> the Rococo style “dances.” ► Portrays the carefree life of the aristocracy -- landscapes like fairy tales. ► Eventually replaced by Neo-Classicism, the artistic style of the American & French Revolutions.

“The Pleasures of the Ball” Jean-Antoine Watteau, 1717

“The Pleasures of Life” Jean-Antoine Watteau, 1718

“The Swing” Jean Honoré Fragonard 1766

“The Stolen Kiss” Jean Honoré Fragonard Late 1780s

“La Toilette” – François Boucher, 1742

“The Marquis de Pompadour” François Boucher 1756

Overview of Neo-Classicism Art produced in Europe and North America from the mid-18c to the early 19c. More than just an antique revival  a reaction against the surviving Baroque & Rococo styles. Linked to contemporary political events: Revolutions established republics in France and in America. [Neo-Classicism was adapted as the official art style]. Association with the democracy of Greece and the republicanism of Rome. Napoleon  used the style for propaganda.

1. Excavations of the Ruins of Italian Cities Herculaneum in Pompeii in 1748.

2. Publication of Books on Antiquity James Stuart & Nicholas Revert Antiquities in Athens:

3. Arrival of the Elgin Marbles Thomas Bruce, 7 th Lord of Elgin British Museum, 1806 From the top façade of the Parthenon in Athens.

4. Johann Winckelmann’s Artists Circle German art historian. Artists should “imitate” the timeless, ideal forms of the classical world. A circle of international artists gathered about him in the 1760s in Rome.

Characteristics of Neo-Classicism Return to the perceived “purity” of the arts of Rome. Model the “ideal” of the ancient Greek arts and, to a lesser, extent, 16c Renaissance classicism. A conviction that there is a permanent, universal way things are (and should be), which obviously entails fundamental political and ethical commitments. Sometimes considered anti-modern or even reactionary.

Claude Nicholas Ledoux Rotunde de la Villette, Paris

John Wood “The Royal Crescent [Circus]” at Bath, England (1754).

The “Empire Style”: Charles Percier & Pierre François Léonard Fontaine The “Empire Style”: Charles Percier & Pierre François Léonard Fontaine Napoleon’s official architects. They remade Paris in the intimidating opulence of Roman imperial architectural style.

The “Federal Style” in America $1780 – $Thomas Jefferson’s influence. Monticello, VA University of VA U. S. Capitol

“The Oath of Brutus” Gavin Hamilton, 1767 The oath was sworn as a promise of individual revenge against a corrupt monarchy.

“The Death of Socrates” Jacques-Louis David, 1787 The death of Socrates was a symbol of republican virtue.

“The Oath of the Horatii” Jacques-Louis David, 1784 A depiction of dutiful patriotism.

“The Consecration of Napoleon & Josephine” Jacques-Louis David, A very different theme: The celebration of worldly splendor and power.

“The Apotheosis of Homer” Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, 1827 This assembly of great artists and writers of all ages gathered to honor the ancient Greek poet before a classical temple.

FurnitureFurniture The furniture designs used Greco-Roman motifs. Became known as style étrusque [“Etruscan style”] in France. Were favored by the court of Louis XV and later by Napoleon I.

Josiah Wedgwood Greek vases found in excavations became models for this new type of ceramics.

Neo-Classicism Continued Into the 19c and Beyond…. By the mid-19s, several European cities were transformed into veritable museums of Neo-Classical architecture. Brandenburg Gate, Berlin Buckingham Palace, London The Gate of Alcala, Madrid

American Renaissance” Movement A Neo-Classical expression in Beaux-Arts architecture. Lincoln Memorial American Museum of Natural History National Gallery of Art