Eyewitness Testimony Reconstructive memory Reconstructive memory Schema driven errors Schema driven errors Effect of leading questions Effect of leading questions Other factors Other factors Weapon focus Weapon focus Effects of anxiety/arousal Effects of anxiety/arousal Retrieval cues Retrieval cues

Reconstructive Memory Bartlett (1932) Bartlett (1932) Memory is not a direct record of what was witnessed Memory is not a direct record of what was witnessed What is encoded and how it is retrieved depends on: What is encoded and how it is retrieved depends on: Information already stored in memory Information already stored in memory How this info is understood, structured and organised How this info is understood, structured and organised

Reconstructive Memory Schemas Schemas Knowledge structures that relate to commonly encountered objects, situations or people Knowledge structures that relate to commonly encountered objects, situations or people Enable us to predict events, make sense of unfamiliar circumstances, organise our own behaviour Enable us to predict events, make sense of unfamiliar circumstances, organise our own behaviour Act as filters to perception & recall Act as filters to perception & recall

Computer Information Processing BANG! Can you wreck a nice beach?

Schema Driven Processing Yes. I can recognise speech. Can you wreck a nice beach?

Bartlett (1932) ‘Pickaxe’ ‘Turf cutter’ InputOutputSchema Bartlett (1932)

Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghosts War of the Ghosts When recalled by UK PPs: When recalled by UK PPs: Shorter Shorter Less detailed Less detailed Some details changed (e.g. seal hunting changed to fishing) Some details changed (e.g. seal hunting changed to fishing) More ‘Western’ structure More ‘Western’ structure

EWT: Schema Driven Errors Witnesses to crimes filter information during acquisition & recall Witnesses to crimes filter information during acquisition & recall Their schematic understanding may influence how info is both stored & retrieved Their schematic understanding may influence how info is both stored & retrieved Distortions may occur without the witness realising Distortions may occur without the witness realising

EWT: Schema Driven Errors Past experiences Past experiences Assumptions about what usually happens Assumptions about what usually happens Stereotypes & beliefs about crime & criminals Stereotypes & beliefs about crime & criminals

EWT: Leading Questions Loftus (1970s onwards) Loftus (1970s onwards) Effect of leading questions on recall Effect of leading questions on recall Leading questions introduce new information Leading questions introduce new information Leading info may activate wrong schemas in witness’ mind Leading info may activate wrong schemas in witness’ mind Consequently, witness may recall events incorrectly Consequently, witness may recall events incorrectly

EWT: Leading Questions Loftus’ studies using film/video/slides road accidents Loftus’ studies using film/video/slides road accidents ‘How fast were cars going when they hit…’ or ‘…when they smashed…’? ‘How fast were cars going when they hit…’ or ‘…when they smashed…’? ‘Smashed’ led to higher speed estimates ‘Smashed’ led to higher speed estimates ‘Did you see a/the broken headlight’? ‘Did you see a/the broken headlight’? ‘The’ produced more affirmative (incorrect) responses ‘The’ produced more affirmative (incorrect) responses

EWT: Leading Questions Loftus’ research usually lab based: Loftus’ research usually lab based: Restricted samples (students) Restricted samples (students) Artificial stimuli (slides, videos, not real events) Artificial stimuli (slides, videos, not real events) Potential for demand characteristics to influence responses Potential for demand characteristics to influence responses No legal/moral consequences for inaccurate answers No legal/moral consequences for inaccurate answers

EWT: Leading Questions EWT most affected by leading Qs when: EWT most affected by leading Qs when: Witness believes questioner knows more than them Witness believes questioner knows more than them Witness does not realise they may be misled Witness does not realise they may be misled Leading information is peripheral, not central Leading information is peripheral, not central Leading information is not blatantly incorrect Leading information is not blatantly incorrect

EWT: Weapon Focus When a weapon is used to threaten a victim, their attention is likely to focus on it When a weapon is used to threaten a victim, their attention is likely to focus on it Consequently, their recall of other information is likely to be poor Consequently, their recall of other information is likely to be poor

EWT: Arousal Effects Memory is most effective at moderate arousal levels If the witness was in a state of extremely low or high arousal then recall may be poor arousal performance

EWT: Retrieval Cues Recall typically takes place in a different context to acquisition Recall typically takes place in a different context to acquisition Lack of retrieval cues (state and context) can inhibit recall Lack of retrieval cues (state and context) can inhibit recall Reconstruction of the events (either imagination or simulation) can lead to enhanced recall Reconstruction of the events (either imagination or simulation) can lead to enhanced recall