Women’s & Minority Movements of the 1960s Ch. 23, Sec 1, 2

Women’s rights movement began in mid 1800’s. 1960s-Movement changed, became feminism. – Full political, social, political equality. Women could vote, but many didn’t work. – % of women worked outside home. – Employers didn’t want to spend time/money training women, as it was expected they would leave work to start families. – Many wouldn’t hire women, as they felt women’s responsibilities were home & family. – Women tended to earn around 53 cents for every dollar a man earned. Were often under-employed as well.

Civil Rights movement of 50s & 60s provided model for feminist activists. Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title VII-employer could not discriminate on race, religion, national origin, SEX. – Women had legal framework to sue employers, but EEOC would not hear complaints. Women active in many social causes(ex- Vietnam) began to band together in feminism.

Betty Friedan had huge role in feminist movement. – Wrote The Feminine Mystique. Said women were unhappy with traditional roles, felt there must be more to life; wanted to realize their full potential. Many women in suburbs joined feminist movement due to book. Due to feminism & The Feminine Mystique, women began to form community groups, speak of feminism, sexism. – Negative attitudes toward a certain sex. Soon, national groups began to organize.

women formed National Organization of Women (NOW). – Goal-bring women to equality in society. – Wanted equal pay, equal job opportunities, attacked sexist stereotypes, wanted marriage to be partnership. – Grew rapidly-in four years, 15,000 members. NOW organized protests, rallies, lawsuits, brought feminism to mainstream attention. Early 1970s brought Our Bodies, Ourselves. – Book dealing with women’s bodies, health issues.

1972-Gloria Steinem & others published Ms. magazine. – Devoted to feminist issues, very different than other women’s magazines. – Became very popular magazine. Feminist movement brought successful changes. – 1972-Higher Education Act included amendment outlawing sex discrimination. – More women went to college, entered “male” industries (engineering, medicine, law). – National Women’s Political Caucus pushed for women’s issues in national politics.

Non-feminists also saw gains. – Need for daycare facilities, homeless women’s shelters, women’s health issues. Feminist movement eventually began to split. – Radical group rejected men, marriage, kids, wanted to end “male patriarchy”. – Traditional group wanted equal footing with men. Abortion became a big feminist issue. – Illegal in most states Roe v. Wade-Supreme Court legalized abortion in first 3 months of pregnancy. – Based on “right to privacy”. – States could still regulate after first 3 months.

1972-Congress approved Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), passed to states to ratify. – Needed 38 states by 1982, got 35. – ERA died. – Would have made sex discrimination constitutionally illegal. Many, including women, opposed feminist movement, Roe v. Wade, ERA. – Wanted to continue traditional roles. – Homemakers, mothers undervalued by NOW. – Many men opposed movement.

Minority Movements Civil Rights & Feminist movements inspired other groups. US had large & growing Latino movement. – Cubans in Florida, Puerto Ricans in northeast, Mexicans in southwest were biggest groups. Many felt that Latinos held back by white organizations-Catholic Church, media, schools; and by economic pressure. – Organizations began to develop to push for equality. High school students protested for better facilities, Latino courses, Latino teachers & counselors. – Walkouts in CA, TX CO.

Many Latino migrant farm workers. – Followed harvests all over west; low pay, hard work, few education opportunities. Cesar Chavez, former migrant, organized United Farm Workers union. – Started with grape pickers-when growers refused more pay, etc., UFW organized nationwide boycott of grapes. Caused growers to fold. CA passed law requiring collective bargaining between union, growers. UFW became very successful union.

Other Latinos gained political power. – Henry Gonzalez, Elizo de la Garza elected to Congress from Texas Jose Angel Gutierrez began political group La Raza Unida in TX. – Worked for better housing, job opportunities, backed Latino political candidates. Other groups more extreme. – Alianza Federal de Mercedes – claimed whites stole Mexican lands, protested, demanded reparations.

Japanese citizens in WWII held in internment camps. – Many lost homes, property, businesses with no payment. Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) organized to help people receive compensation. – Due to JACL, Congress passed Japanese American Claims Act. – Took 20 years for claims to be settled, only small amounts paid for properties. Asians tended to be better educated than most immigrants, quickly made gains economically.

Native Americans granted citizenship in Arizona, New Mexico became last states to grant Natives suffrage. Became very angry due to treatment by gov’t, American people gov’t built dam on Seneca lands, without consulting tribe. – Afterwards, gov’t paid Seneca $15 million. – Other tribes sued & won suits over violation of treaties, failure to make promised payments.

1968-Chippewas Dennis Banks & George Mitchell began American Indian Movement (AIM). – Fought for Native American autonomy (self- government), for control of natural resources on tribal lands, for restoration of lands taken illegally by gov’t. – Organized like Black Panthers or militant SNCC. Many didn’t like militant approach Aim members occupied Alcatraz Island under Fort Laramie Treaty. – Allowed Native males to claim federal land. – Held it for 1.5 yrs, marshals finally removed them AIM organized Broken Treaties Caravan to bring attention to broken treaties. – Took over Bureau of Indian Affairs offices for 6 days.

1973-AIM took over Sioux village of Wounded Knee, refused to leave until gov’t investigated conditions on reservations, reviewed 300+ treaties. – 3 months later, AIM surrendered after 2 AIM members killed, 12 wounded in shootout with marshals. Positive outcomes: – Indian Education Act-Gave parents, tribal councils more control over tribal schools & programs. – Indian Self-Determination & Education Assistance Act-Let tribes run reservations, let leaders administer federal housing & education programs.