Close Reading How would you define close reading? 1. Annotate the text 2. Look for patterns 3. Ask questions For your annotated bibliographies, focus on these 3 questions instead of exclusively summarizing.

"THE JOB OF SEMANTICS IS TO STUDY THE BASIC, LITERAL MEANINGS OF WORDS AS CONSIDERED PRINCIPALLY AS PARTS OF A LANGUAGE SYSTEM, WHEREAS PRAGMATICS CONCENTRATES ON THE WAYS IN WHICH THESE BASIC MEANINGS ARE USED IN PRACTICE, INCLUDING SUCH TOPICS AS THE WAYS IN WHICH DIFFERENT EXPRESSIONS ARE ASSIGNED REFERENTS IN DIFFERENT CONTEXTS, AND THE DIFFERING (IRONIC, METAPHORICAL, ETC.) USES TO WHICH LANGUAGE IS PUT." Semantics and Pragmatics

Semantics Semantics is the field of linguistics concerned with the study of meaning in language. Linguistic semantics has been defined as the study of how languages organize and express meanings. From the Greek, "sign." The term semantics was coined by French linguist Michel Bréal ( ), who is commonly regarded as a founder of modern semantics.

Semantics as a Pejorative "Any scientific approach to semantics has to be clearly distinguished from a pejorative sense of the term that has developed in popular use, when people talk about the way that language can be manipulated in order to mislead the public.” “A newspaper headline might read. 'Tax increases reduced to semantics'--referring to the way a government was trying to hide a proposed increase behind some carefully chosen words.” “This kind of nuance is absent when we talk about semantics from the objective point of linguistic research. The linguistic approach studies the properties of meaning in a systematic and objective way, with reference to as wide a range of utterances and languages as possible."  David Crystal, How Language Works

Connotation and Denotation Careful writers choose words both for what they mean (that is, their dictionary meanings, or denotations) and for what they suggest (their connotations, or emotional associations). For instance, "slim," "scrawny," and "svelte" all have related denotative meanings (thin, let's say) but different connotative meanings.

Power of Connotation "A writer needs an 'ear' as much as a musician does," wrote Sydney J. Harris. "And without this ear, he is lost and groping in a forest of words, where all the trees look much alike." Unfortunately, he said, "most persons--and this includes aspiring writers--simply fail to recognize that there are very few true synonyms in the language, no matter what the dictionary may insist." A dictionary can tell us only what a word points to, not "what it feels like." Distinguishing between two words that seem to mean the same, but have different colors and shapes and suggestions-- this is essential to the art of writing, and also of speaking.

Power of Connotation Unspeakable in the dictionary means the same as unutterable--but the former is always used to mean something base or vile, while the latter usually means some rapturous or divine thought or emotion. The striking colors in our living room are "dramatic"; the striking colors in yours are "flamboyant." My inability to warm up to strangers is caused by "shyness," but yours is caused by "stand-offishness." Jane marries John because of his "boyish charm"--and divorces him because of his "immaturity." I am "strong-minded," but you are "opinionated." I am opposed to your newfangled ideas because I believe in "the value of tradition," but you are opposed to my sensible reforms because you are "blindly clinging to the past.“ The difference between "vandalism" and a "harmless prank" depends upon whose child has committed it.

Connotation and Denotation The following words and phrases all refer to "a young person," but their connotations may be quite different depending, in part, on the context in which they appear: youngster, child, kid, little one, small fry, brat, urchin, juvenile, minor. Some of these words tend to carry favorable connotations (little one), others unfavorable (brat), and still others fairly neutral connotations (child).

Connotation Exercise Each of the short passages is fairly objective and colorless, using words with neutral connotations. Your job is to write two new versions of each passage: first, using words with positive connotations to show the subject in an attractive light; second, using words with negative connotations to describe the same subject in a less favorable way.  Gus cooked dinner for Merdine. He prepared some meat and vegetables and a special dessert.  The person did not weigh very much. The person had brown hair and a small nose. The person wore informal clothing.  Douglas was careful with his money. He kept his money in a safe place. He bought only the necessities of life. He never borrowed or lent money.

Connotation Exercise In each of the following sentences, the italicized word has a fairly neutral connotation. For each word in italics, list two synonyms (words with similar denotations): one with a negative connotation and the other with a positive connotation Example: Sometimes my thin friend annoys me.  negative connotation: scrawny  positive connotation: slim I recognized the familiar smell of my roommate's cooking. Scrapple is an inexpensive meal. Kevin's interest in model cars has turned into a hobby. Uncle Henry lives in a hut deep in the woods. Phileas Fogg was an adventurous traveler. We stopped for lunch at a diner in West Virginia. My parents are committed conservationists. My old laptop has finally died. The teacher was mildly intimidated by Merdine's assertive behavior