Child, Family, School, and Community Socialization and Support 6th ed. Chapter Four Ecology of Parenting

Parenting Parenting means implementing a series of decisions about the socialization of one’s children.

Definition of Parenting What one does: to enable children to become responsible, contributing members of society. when children cry, are aggressive, lie, or do poorly in school.

Decisions about Parenting Can be confusing because there is little consensus as to what children should be like when they grow up. there are different opinions on what parents should do to enable children to become grown up. it is bidirectional and dynamic.

An Ecological Model of Human Development Parenting is the means by which the family socializes children.

Macrosystem Influences on Parenting Political Ideology Culture Socioeconomic Status Ethnicity/Religion

Political Ideology Refers to theories pertaining to government Influences parenting styles children must be raised to function as citizens in society Most traditional societies subscribe to an aristocratic political ideology

Political Ideology Autocracy Democracy one person has unlimited power over others Democracy those ruled have power equal to those who rule: equality of rights

Civil Rights Act of 1964 Required that groups be treated equally in housing, education, and employment.

Culture Includes acquired by members of a society knowledge beliefs art morals law customs traditions acquired by members of a society

Culture Encompasses the way people have learned how to adapt to their environment their assumptions about the way the world is their beliefs about the way people should act

Culture and Parenting Goals LeVine’s universal parenting goals: ensuring physical health and survival developing behavioral capacities for economic self-maintenance instilling behavioral capacities for maximizing cultural values such as morality, prestige, and achievement Cultures vary in the emphasis they place on parenting goals as well as in how they implement them.

Culture, Economics, and Children’s Behavior Economics involves the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Does the way a society governs and supports itself to survive relate to the way its children are reared?

Whitings’ Socioeconomic Systems Simple Societies Roles clearly defined Emphasis on cooperation to survive Complex Societies Occupational specialization Class system Centralized government Competition emphasized

Categories of Children’s Social Behavior Nurturance Responsibility Dependence Dominance Sociability Intimacy Authoritarianism Aggressiveness

Whitings’ Conclusions Nurturance Responsibility Success Authority Casual intimacy are types of behavior that are differentially preferred by different cultures. These values are transmitted to the children before the age of six.

respected occupations Socioeconomic Status Rank or position within society based on social and economic factors High high income respected occupations well educated Middle medium incomes business workers decent education Low low income unskilled jobs poorly educated

Parental Occupations and Children’s Behavior Exosystem influence—the parent’s work. The more complex the society: the more roles exist the more criteria upon which status is based income occupation education place of residence the more complex the task of socialization

Middle vs. Lower Class Occupations Lower Class Parents Likely to judge their children’s behavior in terms of its immediate consequences and its external characteristics. Middle Class Parents More concerned with their children’s motives and the attitudes their behavior seem to express.

Ethnicity/Religion Impact people’s values, perceptions, attitudes, and behavior. Ethnicity Identified by national origin, culture, language, race, or religion. Religion A unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things.

Group Values Categorized by Customs and Traditions of Ethnicity and Religion Gemeinschaft Groups: Communal Cooperative Intimate Informal Gesellschaft Groups: Associative Practical Objective Formal

Family Group Values: Gemeinschaft vs. Gesellschaft Gemeinschaft Families: Cooperative/interdependent (collectivism). Emphasize interdependent relations, social responsibilities, and the well-being of the group. Gesellschaft Families: Competitive/independent (individualism). Emphasize individual fulfillment and choice (standing out).

Discipline/Guidance of Children Orientations Cooperative/Interdependent (Collective) Competitive/Independent (Individualistic) Authority Roles Communication Displays of Emotion Discipline/Guidance of Children Skills Emphasis

Chronosystem Influences on Parenting Significant forces isolating the family: Occupational mobility Breakdown of the neighborhood Separation of residential from business areas Consolidated school districts Separate patterns of social life Delegation of child care to outside institutions Lack of a support system

Historical Trends Pre-eighteenth century Children were considered significant only if they contributed to their elder’s welfare. Eighteenth century (Colonial America) Families were autocratic Tradition and religion influenced child-rearing practices Early childhood was viewed “as a negative period of life…” during which time parents had great influence over their children’s social outcomes. The eighteenth century brought about the ideas of many different philosophers (advocated humanism). John Locke—child’s mind as a blank slate (tabula rasa) Jean Rousseau—children needed freedom to grow Johann Pestalozzi—mother as the child’s first teacher

Nineteenth Century G. Stanley Hall influenced many contemporary attitudes on child development and parenting (individual needs and welfare of the child). Twentieth century In 1914, child-rearing literature advocating rigid scheduling. John B. Watson’s theory of behaviorism, which involved conditioning, became popular during the 1920’s, along with Sigmund Freud’s theory of personality development, which involved unconscious motives.

The 1940’s brought a change from rigid scheduling; Benjamin Spock advocating self-regulation of the child. The 1950’s brought about an emphasis on children’s intellectual development. Jean Piaget’s theories on cognitive development (construction of knowledge) were of great importance to professionals working with children. The trend in parenting attitudes in the United States over time has swung from parent-centeredness to child-centeredness to more of a balanced approach.

Family Dynamics Parenting involves a continuous process of reciprocal interaction that affects both parents and children. When individuals become parents, they rediscover some of their own experiences. Characteristics of children that influence family dynamics and parenting styles Age Temperament Gender Special needs

Age As children get older, parent-child interactions change. Infancy = feeding, changing, bathing, comforting Preschool years = reasoning, instruction, isolation, withdrawal of privileges, reinforcement, rewards Adolescence = discussion, collaborative problem solving, compromise

Temperament The combination of innate characteristics that determine individuals’ sensitivity to various experiences and responsiveness to patterns of social interaction. Activity level Rhythmicity Distractibility Approach/withdrawal Adaptability Attention span and persistence Intensity of reaction Threshold of responsiveness Quality of mood

Goodness of Fit The accommodation of parenting styles to children’s temperaments (Thomas and Chess) Easy children = adapt well to various styles of child rearing Slow-to-warm-up = do best with a moderate amount of encouragement coupled with patience Difficult children = need consistent, patient, and objective parents who can handle their instability

Family Dynamics cont. Gender Presence of a special need Parents provide different socializing environments for boys and for girls, most likely due to their own socialization. Play activities differ for boys and for girls. Presence of a special need Special needs and disabilities influence family dynamics and parenting styles. Reactions vary enormously.

Family Characteristics Family dynamics and parenting styles are influenced by: size (number of siblings) configuration (birth order, spacing, gender) parents’ stage of life marital quality ability to cope with stress

Size and Configuration Both parents and children are affected by the number of children in the family. The more children there are the more family members interact the less likely parent-child interactions occur The spacing and gender of the siblings influence parent-child interactions. With each birth comes different temperaments.

Parents’ Life Stage, Marital Quality, and Ability to Cope with Stress Parents go through six stages of change: Image making Nurturing Authority Interpretation Interdependence Departure Stressors outside the family disrupt the parent-child relationship.

Parenting Styles Classified by dimensions of: Acceptance/responsiveness (warmth/sensitivity) Give affection, provide encouragement, sensitive Demandingness/control (permissiveness/restrictiveness) Set rules, monitor compliance

Microsystem Influences: Between Parent and Child Attachment is an affectional tie that one person forms to another. Self-regulation is bringing one’s emotions, thoughts, and/or behavior under control. Prosocial behavior refers to actions that benefit another person. Competence involves behavior that is socially responsible, independent, friendly, cooperative, dominant, achievement oriented and purposeful. Achievement motivation is to approach challenging tasks with confidence of mastery.

Parenting Styles Three dimensions or degrees: Other dimensions: Authoritative (democratic) Authoritarian (parent-centered) Permissive (child-centered) Other dimensions: Uninvolved (disengaged) Parents never simply fit into one category, they are a mixture.

Disorganized/disoriented Attachment An outcome of sensitive, responsive caregiving. “The Strange Situation” showed: Secure Insecure Resistant Avoidant Disorganized/disoriented

H.O.M.E. Home Observation for the Measurement of the Environment, contained 45 items in 6 areas: Emotional and verbal responsiveness Avoidance of restriction and punishment Organization of the physical and temporal environment Provision of appropriate play materials Parental interaction with the child Opportunities for variety in daily stimulation

Mesosystem Influences: Between Parent and Others The impact of parental socialization techniques is enhanced by supportive links with other microsystems, such as the: School Families’ links to schools via parent education, parent-teacher conferences, and parental participation in school activities can have positive impacts on families. Community Considered to include social environments outside the family context of parenting; can be supportive to help parents cope with stress.

Parenting Practices Appropriate Developmental appropriateness Guidance Direction Demonstration Supervision Influence Discipline Punishment Correction Training Inappropriate Uninvolved Parenting Aloofness Distancing “At Risk” Child Maltreatment Intentional harm Endangerment Unkindness… Violence

Child Maltreatment: Abuse and Neglect Abuse is maltreatment involving assaults: physical sexual psychological emotional Neglect is maltreatment involving: abandonment lack of supervision or safety improper feeding inadequate medical/dental care inappropriate dress uncleanliness

Correlates and Consequences of Child Maltreatment Risk factors include ongoing (i.e. parental history of being abused) transient (i.e. parent’s loss of job) Resilient factors include ongoing (i.e. child’s easy temperament) transient (i.e. improvement in family finances)

The Family and Maltreatment Some individuals, because they themselves have never received love, support, guidance do not know how to provide them to their own children. Many abusers have a family history of being maltreated. They feel: unworthy, inadequate, unacceptable resulting in low self-esteem.

The Child and Maltreatment The physical and psychological characteristics of abused children include: crying hyperactivity inability to give an acceptable response Children who are more difficult than average to care for seem to be the victims of maltreatment i.e. demanding, whiny, weepy, stubborn, resistive, sickly, negative.

The Community and Maltreatment Environmental factors that correlate highly with abuse are: poverty unemployment social isolation of families transient lifestyles lack of recognition of children’s rights cultural acceptance of corporal punishment limited help for families in crises