Chapter 6

 Writing addressed to a well-informed audience about a topic  Attempts to convey a clear and compelling point in a somewhat formal style  “carefully structured research”

 Is authoritative  Reviews what is known about a topic and creates new knowledge about it  Focuses on issues that are important to the writer’s academic peers  Includes logical appeals based on careful research

 Cites every source carefully and provides bibliographical references so others can find the sources  Is written in a clear formal style  Has an even-handed tone, deals fairly with any opposing points of view, and avoids appeals to emotion

 Choose a topic you want to explore in depth  Get to know the conversation surrounding your topic  Assess what you know and what you need to know  Begin formulating a claim about your topic  Consider your rhetorical stance and purpose

 Think about your audience  Concentrate on the material you are gathering  Take special care with your documentation  Think about organization  Consider style and tone  Consider design and visuals  Reflect on your draft and get responses  Edit and proofread your text

Chapter 7

 Defines which parts go where  Logical arguments described as:  Inductive reasoning  Deductive reasoning

 Process of generalizing on the basis of a number of specific examples I get hives after eating crawdads. My mouth swells up when I eat clams. Shrimp triggers my asthma. Shellfish makes me ill.

 Reaches a conclusion by assuming a general principle (major premise) Shellfish makes me ill. Lobster is a type of shellfish. Lobster will make me ill.

I get hives after eating crawdads. My mouth swells up when I eat clams. Shrimp triggers my asthma. Shellfish makes me ill. Lobster is a type of shellfish. Lobster will make me ill.

1. Classical Oration 2. Rogerian Argument 3. Toulmin Argument

 Structure used by Greek and Roman rhetoricians  Think as arguments as debates that have winners and losers  Sequence of 6 parts 1. Exordium 2. Narratio 3. Partitico 4. Confirmatio 5. Refutatio 6. Peroratio

1. Introduction  Gain reader interest  Background  Present necessary information  Lines of argument  Presents good reasons (logical & emotional appeal)  Alternative arguments  Alternative points of view & opposing arguments  Conclusion  Summarizes argument, makes clear what you want the audience to do

 People involved in disputes should not respond to each other until they could fully, fairly, and even sympathetically state the other person’s position. Willingness to think about opposing positions and to describe them fairily.

 Introduction  Rich description to demonstrate that the writer fully understands alternative positions  Contexts  Describe the contexts in which the alternative positions may be valid  Writer’s Position  State position and present circumstances making opinion valid  Benefits to opponent  Explain to opponents how they would benefit from adopting their position

 Must acknowledge that alternative to your claims exist and they are reasonable under certain circumstances  Moves toward understanding and cooperation  Structure your arguments to learn opposing positions well enough to state them accurately and honestly

 Acknowledges the complications of life  Use of qualifiers

 Arguments begin with claims  Claims – debatable assertions you hope to prove  Claims worth arguing tend to be controversial  No point in arguing point on which people agree  Claim answers the question: “What’s your point?”

Simple, Undeveloped Claims  It’s time to legalize the medical use of marijuana.  NASA should launch a human expedition to Mars.  Vegetarianism is the best choice of diet. *note: these claims are statements, not questions

 Ask a question to reach a claim  Should NASA launch more robotic interstellar probes? Can NASA even afford to send people to Mars? Answer: NASA should launch a human expedition to Mars.  Good claims often spring from personal experiences.  We all know something to merit the label expert.

 A claim must have some evidence and good reasons to support it  Attaching a reason to a claim often spells out the major terms of an argument.  Do the reason & evidence offered really support the claim? Evidence & ReasonSo Claim

 Must be a logical & persuasive connection b/t the claim and the reasons & data supporting  A sound warrant give you authority to proceed with your case Evidence & Reason So Claim Since Warrant

The mushroom is poisonous. So Don’t eat it. Since Eating poisonous things is dangerous. General principle that enables you to justify the move from a reason to a specific claim – the bridge connecting them.

 Tell you what arguments you have to make and at what level you have to make them.  Controversial warrant = more explanation  When possible – choose warrant knowing your audience, context of your argument, and your own feelings.

 Warrants suggest the scope of the evidence  Use backing to provide the background or history on the subject  Backing – evidence to support your warrant  Toulmin – readers have to agree on some basic principles, or the argument becomes pointless

 Words and phrases that place limits on claims  Using qualifiers make writing more precise and honest Examples:  Never assume your readers know the limits you have in mind – you must state them as precisely as possible FewMore or lessOftenPossible It seemsRarelyMostIn general In the mainManyIn some casesperhaps

 Know potential objections to your argument  Understand and reacting to these conditions are essential to support your own claims where they’re weak  You gain credibility & authority by anticipating a reasonable objection  Anticipating objections broadens your horizons and likely makes your more open to change