PowerPoint  Lecture Notes Presentation Chapter 9: Learning

Lecture Overview Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Cognitive-Social Learning The Biology of Learning Using Conditioning and Learning Principles

Introductory Definitions Learning (relatively permanent change in behavior or mental processes resulting from practice or experience) Conditioning (process of learning associations between environmental stimuli and behavioral responses)

Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Contribution Classical Conditioning: learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (NS) becomes paired (associated) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR)

Pavlov’s Original Experiment

Classical Conditioning--Key Terms Neutral Stimulus (NS): stimulus that, before conditioning, doesn’t naturally bring about the response of interest Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): stimulus that elicits an UCR occurring without previous conditioning Unconditioned Response (UCR): unlearned reaction to an UCS occurring without prior conditioning

Classical Conditioning--Key Terms (Continued) Conditioned Stimulus (CS): previously NS that, through repeated pairings with an UCS, now causes a CR Conditioned Response (CR): learned reaction to a CS occurring because of previous repeated pairings with an UCS

Why Study Psychology? It Helps You Understand Popular Cartoons!

Classical Conditioning (Continued)

Classical Conditioning (Continued) John B. Watson Conditioned Emotional Response (CER): Watson demonstrated how emotions can be classically conditioned to a previously neutral stimulus (NS).

Watson and Rayner Created a Fear of Rats (a CER) in Little Albert

Classical Conditioning’s Basic Principles ALL Snakes bite! Stimulus Generalization: learned response to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimuli (CS)

Classical Conditioning’s Basic Principles (Continued) Now I know that some snakes are nice! Stimulus Discrimination: learned response to a specific stimulus, but not to other, similar stimuli

Extinction: gradual weakening or suppression of a previously conditioned response (CR) Spontaneous Recovery: reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response (CR)

Classical Conditioning’s Basic Principles (Continued) Higher-Order Conditioning: neutral stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) through repeated pairings with a previously conditioned stimulus (CS)

Classical Conditioning’s Basic Principles (Continued) Higher-Order Conditioning

Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning: learning in which voluntary responses are controlled by their consequences

Operant Conditioning (Continued) Thorndike’s Contribution Law of Effect: the probability of an action being repeated is strengthened when followed by a pleasant or satisfying consequence

Operant Conditioning (Continued) Skinner’s Contribution Conducted systematic research using a Skinner box

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles Reinforcement: strengthening a response

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles (Continued) Primary Reinforcers: normally satisfy an unlearned biological need (e.g., food) Secondary Reinforcers: learned value (e.g., money, praise)

External and internal reinforcers chapter 9 External and internal reinforcers External reinforcers Reinforcers not inherently related to the behavior being reinforced Internal reinforcers Reinforcers inherently related to the behavior being reinforced External reinforcers may undermine internal reinforcers.

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles (Continued) Positive Reinforcement: adding (or presenting) a stimulus, which strengthens a response and makes it more likely to recur (e.g., praise)

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles (Continued) Negative Reinforcement: taking away (or removing) a stimulus, which strengthens a response and makes it more likely to recur (e.g., headache removed after taking an aspirin)

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles (Continued)

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles: Four Partial Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR): reinforcement occurs after a predetermined set of responses; the ratio (number or amount) is fixed 2. Variable Ratio (VR): reinforcement occurs unpredictably; the ratio (number or amount) varies

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles: Four Partial Schedules (Continued) Fixed Interval (FI): reinforcement occurs after a predetermined time has elapsed; the interval (time) is fixed 4. Variable Interval (VI): reinforcement occurs unpredictably; the interval (time) varies

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles: Four Partial Schedules (Continued)

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles: Four Partial Schedules (Continued) If you want to increase the overall number of responses, which schedule of reinforcement should you choose?

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles (Continued) Shaping: reinforcement is delivered for successive approximations of the desired response

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles (Continued) Punishment: weakening a response

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles (Continued) Positive Punishment: adding (or presenting) a stimulus that weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur (e.g., shouting)

Operant Conditioning’s Basic Principles (Continued) Negative Punishment: taking away (or removing) a stimulus that weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur (e.g., restriction)

chapter 9 Punishment The process by which a stimulus weakens or reduces the probability of the response that it follows. Primary punishers are inherently punishing. Secondary reinforcers are stimuli that have acquired punishing properties through associations with other punishers.

Types of punishment Positive punishment Negative punishment chapter 9 Types of punishment Positive punishment When an unpleasant consequence follows a response, making the response less likely to recur. Negative punishment When an pleasant consequence is removed following a response, making the response less likely to recur.

chapter 9 Your turn Your first time camping in the woods, you are bitten over 45 times by mosquitoes, resulting in lots of swollen, itchy bumps on your arms, legs, and back. You never want to go camping again. What kind of consequence did you confront on your first camping experience? 1. Positive reinforcement 2. Negative reinforcement 3. Positive punishment 4. Negative punishment

chapter 9 Your turn Your first time camping in the woods, you are bitten over 45 times by mosquitoes, resulting in lots of swollen, itchy bumps on your arms, legs, and back. You never want to go camping again. What kind of consequence did you confront on your first camping experience? 1. Positive reinforcement 2. Negative reinforcement 3. Positive punishment 4. Negative punishment

Side Effects of Punishment Judging by this woman’s expression, is she experiencing an example of increased aggression, passive aggressiveness, avoidance behavior, modeling, temporary suppression, or learned helplessness?

Cognitive-Social Learning Cognitive-Social Theory:  emphasizes the roles of thinking and social learning in behavior

Cognitive-Social Learning (Continued) Kohler’s chimps demonstrated insight learning (sudden understanding of a problem that implies the solution).

Cognitive-Social Learning (Continued) Tolman’s rats built a cognitive map (a mental image of a three-dimensional space). They also displayed latent learning (hidden learning that exists without behavioral signs).

Cognitive-Social Learning (Continued) Observational Learning: learning new behaviors or information by watching others Bandura's Famous Bobo Doll study

Observational Learning and Modeling Note the increasing bicep circumference of these G.I. Joe action figures. What are the effects of this type of modeling?

Cognitive-Social Learning (Continued) Observational Learning involves four processes: Attention Retention Motor Reproduction Reinforcement

The Biology of Learning: Neuroscience and Learning When we learn something, we experience the creation of new synaptic connections and alterations in many brain structures.

The Biology of Learning: Evolution and Learning Classical Conditioning Taste Aversion: classically conditioned negative associations of food to illness

The Biology of Learning: Evolution and Learning (Continued) Biological Preparedness: built-in (innate) readiness to form associations between certain stimuli and responses Instinctive Drift: conditioned responses shift (or drift) back toward innate response pattern

Using Conditioning and Learning Principles Classical Conditioning can be seen in: Marketing Prejudice Medical Treatments Phobias

Using Conditioning and Learning Principles (Continued) Operant Conditioning can be seen in: Prejudice Biofeedback Superstitions

Using Conditioning and Learning Principles (Continued) Cognitive-Social Theory can be seen in: Prejudice Media Influences