Welcome to Creating a Personal Minimums Checklist After completing this program, you will be able to: Describe the four major categories of risk factors. Identify risk factors in a planned flight. Understand how standard operating procedures can manage risks. Create a Personal Minimums Checklist, tailored to your experience and capabilities Navigation controls are located at the top of the screen. Pressing the left arrow or right arrow will take you back or forward one slide. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

To help you understand what we mean by risk factors, let's look at an example of a flight in which risk factors play an important role. Click on the movie to watch it. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter You must be connected to the Internet for this video to work

Many pilots have experienced a situation similar to the one you just saw. It is stressful, regardless of how much experience the pilot has. Most accidents and incidents occur because the pilot failed to consider some critical factor during the preflight planning. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

As shown in these data from NASA’s Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS), most errors that lead to incidents are made prior to takeoff. Of the 125 ASRS incident reports reviewed in their study, ninety percent of all time-related human errors occurred in the preflight or taxi-out phase of operation. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter Legend 1Preflight 2-3Taxi-Takeoff 4-5Climb 6-7Descent

Better planning may prevent problems. One way of planning is using checklists. We all have used checklists in our daily lives and pilots use them in the air. This helps them by making sure that nothing is overlooked. Using a checklist will help make sure you have thought through your most important preflight and inflight decisions. The checklist you ill be developing is called the Personal Minimums Checklist. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

This program will help you develop your own personal minimums checklist. The purpose of a Personal Minimums Checklist is to minimize risk factors. This checklist is used on the ground before you go, as part of preflight planning, to make sure you don’t overlook anything. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

The things that can cause problems for a flight are RISK FACTORS. There are four major categories of risk factors. The Pilot The Aircraft The Environment External Pressures Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

The Pilot Some example risk factors associated with the pilot are: – How current are you? – How rested are you? – Do you have experience with the type of airspace you will be flying in? – Do you have experience with the terrain over which you will be flying? Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

The Aircraft Some example risk factors associated with the aircraft are: – Is it properly equipped? – Are there maintenance problems? – Does it have adequate performance? – What is the fuel/oil consumption? Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

The Environment Some examples of risk factors associated with the environment are: – What is the weather like? – Is it day or night? – What terrain is involved? Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

External Pressures Some examples of risk factors associated with external pressures are: – Why are you making the trip? – What outside forces are pushing you? – Are you pressed for time? Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

An easy way to remember these four categories of risk is to think PAVE: Pilot Aircraft EnVironment External Pressure Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

Let's go back and look at our example flight in more detail. We will back up a few hours before the flight and give you some of the background about the pilot, the aircraft, the environment, and the external pressures for that flight. See if you can identify some of the risk factors that were present in this flight. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter You must be connected to the Internet for this video to work

Pilot Rest Terrain Familiarity Upset Passenger Fuel Reserve Aircraft Performance Weather Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter Which of these risk factors do you think applied to the video sequence you just saw?

Here is what our panel of experts thought were the main hazard factors. – Pilot Rest – Terrain Familiarity – Upset Passenger – Fuel Reserve – Aircraft Performance – Weather Their Reasoning According to the pilot this was his first trip "west of the Mississippi", so he was not familiar with this terrain. Clearly his passenger was getting upset with what appeared to be a deteriorating condition. The pilot reports that he cannot get the aircraft to climb -- it does not seem to have enough power. A high density altitude is likely present, along with downdrafts off the surrounding mountains and downdrafts caused by the virga. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

PAVE Categories These risk factors can be organized into their appropriate PAVE category. Now that you know about the PAVE categories, you can probably think of a few more risk factors that affected that flight. – Pilot - Terrain Familiarity – Aircraft - Aircraft Performance – Environment - Weather – External Pressures - Upset Passenger These risks could have been avoided if the pilot had used a simple checklist before the flight. One way to control risks is to set your own personal minimums for each category of risk factor. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

Establishing personal minimums places the accountability on a pilot's personal, individual, conservative choices, rather than the FAA imposing more restrictive guidelines across the board. It is important to set your own personal minimums. Note the term personal minimums. As an individual, only you can make the right decisions for you. The FAA has established some minimum standards, however you should allow yourself to be more conservative when necessary. For example, if the FAA minimums for an instrument approach are 200 foot ceiling and one-half mile visibility, that does not mean that you MUST shoot the approach if the conditions meet that minimum standard. You might decide that, because you don't get a lot of practice, you would only shoot an approach to 400 feet and one mile visibility. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

You can legally fly VFR at night, even in the mountains, with as little as three miles visibility and one thousand foot ceiling. But, would you want to do that? The regulations permit night VFR flight in that kind of weather because in some circumstances it might be OK, and the philosophy is to allow pilots to exercise their own judgment. Even for flight in flat country, you might want a higher VFR minimum that the FAA requires. Five miles may be more comfortable. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter Another example

Consider how much recent practice you have had with takeoffs and landings in crosswinds. Perhaps you could get an instructor to help you assess your personal skill level. Then you could decide on a limit (for example, 75% of the demonstrated crosswind capability) that is comfortable for you. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter Crosswinds

What about a percent margin over computed take-off distance required? The books assume a new airplane, maximum performance effort, and a really sharp pilot - and allow no margin for error at all. We know that is unrealistic for all situations. Consider how much runway (for example, 50% over computed runway length) you would be comfortable with, considering your current skill levels and the aircraft you fly. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter Takeoff Margin

FAA regulations say you need only a biennial flight review and, if passengers are on board, three take- offs and landings in the last 90 days. You can have not flown for almost two years and go out and do three take-offs and landings on your own, and legally go out with passengers wherever you like. Do you really think that is wise? A personal minimum to consider is, if you have not flown for over six months, get some proficiency training with an instructor before you fly. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter Recency of experience.

Stress is another area to consider. Your concentration and performance will go downhill if you are under stress. Different events in our daily lives trigger stress - arguments, serious illnesses, and other major events. The FAA lists many medical conditions that prevent pilots from flying, but stress isn't one of them. Some pilots have a personal minimum of 24 hours between a significant argument and a flight. This is time will allow the pilot to calm down, preventing impulsive behavior in the air. Flying demands our complete attention. If you are still thinking about the latest disaster at your home or office, you are not putting 100% of your attention to flying. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter Stress

Instrument-rated pilots should consider having personal minimums for the weather at takeoff. The FAA allows zero/zero even for single engine at night under Part 91. However, the airlines can’t go unless they can return if they have a problem. So, you might take a lesson from the airlines and set a personal minimum for the weather before you takeoff. You might consider setting your takeoff minimums at the minimums for a precision approach, or if you want to be even more conservative, set them at the minimums for a non- precision approach. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter Takeoff Minimums

The FAA does not set any limits on how many instrument approaches you can do when IFR. Repeatedly missing approaches can encourage the tendency to cheat. This is especially true when you use up all your reserve fuel shooting repeated missed approaches, and no longer have an option to go to your alternate. A rule that might help: Make no more than two instrument approaches to an airport before going somewhere else. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter Multiple Approaches

Pilots often say that usually no one thing causes an accident. It takes several things to lead up to it. If you take precautions to break the "chain of events" leading to an accident, you can prevent it. Setting conservative personal minimums and establishing a good SOP will help you manage the risks and break the chain. Using this approach will help you recognize when multiple risks are present. Although you may be able to manage a single risk element, having multiple risk factors means you are headed for trouble. This is called the compounding effect from multiple categories of risk factors. This compounding of risk factors is the cause of many accidents. Rule of thumb: If you have marginal items in two or more risk factor categories, don't go. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter Multiple Causes for Accidents

The Standard Operating Procedure Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) are used throughout the aviation community as a means of managing risk. SOPs set forth, in black and white, the procedures that pilots will follow in every conceivable condition. The great strength of SOPs is that they are developed on the ground, without rush, long before they are needed in the air. This allows pilots and others to consider all of the things that a pilot might encounter, and to develop a set of standardized responses to deal with the situation. These SOPs would include minimum operating standards, like the approach and weather minimums mentioned earlier, along with other procedures that can be used to manage risk. Let's look at a few areas where SOPs can be helpful to the general aviation pilot Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

External Pressure One area SOPs can be helpful is in dealing with the external pressures of a flight. These pressures are almost always driving you to be at a certain place at a certain time. They push you into starting or continuing a flight, when, if there were no external pressure, you would probably stay on the ground. In the example flight we looked at earlier, the pilot is under pressure to arrive at his destination airport at a specific time, because he has no way of contacting the people waiting for him to let them know that he has been delayed or won't make it at all. Other common sources of external pressure are passengers, your employer, and other pilots. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

You can manage these pressures by deciding beforehand how you will deal with them, and communicating your plans to the other people involved. For example, you might always have a back-up plan in case you are delayed. So, the people you are to meet would know that if you are more than 30 minutes late, then they should return home and you will call them to let them know what's going on. You should advise your employer if you are going on a week-end trip that you may be delayed because of weather or mechanical difficulties, and that you will phone in to let them know when you will arrive. You should have sufficient cash or a credit card, so that you can spend the night somewhere in comfort, instead of feeling pressed to return. The idea is simple. Just try to take a list of all the things that can go wrong, and decide beforehand how you will handle each one. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

It is very important that you write down your Standard Operating Procedures, including all your personal minimums. Not only does this provide a means of reminding you of all the items (like a checklist), but it also lets you show others the reason why you can't do something they want. People are much more likely to accept the fact that you cannot be somewhere at a certain time or do something that they want if you have a written document to back you up. Research has shown that you are much more likely to abide by the standards and procedures if you write them down. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter A written SOP is essential

Now that you understand why SOPs and personal minimums are important, let's get starting making your own SOP. We will begin by helping you decide on your personal minimums for several common areas. Click on the Next Button to begin Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

First, you need to print out a blank Personal Minimums Checklist. As you decide on values for your personal minimums, you can fill in the checklist. Click on the button to the right to open a window containing the checklist. Then use the Print function to print out one or more copies of the checklist. When you have finished printing, close the window and you will be returned to this screen. Then press the Next button to continue. Download Blank Checklist Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter You must be connected to the Internet for this to work Getting Started

Choosing Your Checklist Values To help you decide what values to put in your checklist, we will provide some advice based on the recommendations gathered from a group of Certified Flight Instructors experienced in General Aviation pilot training. As you will see, the values they recommend depend on how much total and recent experience you have. Remember, this is your personal minimums checklist, so feel free to choose whatever values you think are most appropriate for you. Some Expert Advice Click on one of these links to go to the charts appropriate for your total flight experience: – Less than 200 total hours Less than 200 total hours – 200 to 1000 total hours 200 to 1000 total hours – Over 1000 total hours Over 1000 total hours Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

Recent Time < > 30 EXPERIENCE/RECENCY Takeoff/Landing4/144/214/30 Hours in make/model2/142/212/30 PHYSICAL CONDITION Sleep8/24 Food & water444 Alcohol0/24 Drugs /Medication0/12 Stressful events0/3 Illness0/3 Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter Less than 200 Total Hours

Recent Time < > 30 FUEL RESERVES VFR Day222 VFR Night222 EXPERIENCE IN TYPE Takeoffs/landings3/30 Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter Less than 200 Total Hours

Recent Time < > 30 AIRPORT CONDITION Crosswind30% Runway length100% Weather reports & forecasts½ hour VFR WEATHER Ceiling – Day2,000 Ceiling - Night4,000 Visibility – Day555 Visibility – Night888 Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter Less than 200 Total Hours

Recent Time < > 30 EXPERIENCE/RECENCY Takeoff/Landing3/303/60 Hours in make/model2/302/45 Instrument approaches4/301/30 Instrument hours3/301/30 PHYSICAL CONDITION Sleep8/24 Food & water444 Alcohol0/24 Drugs /Medication0/12 Stressful events0/3 Illness0/3 Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter 200 to 1,000 Total Hours

Recent Time < > 30 FUEL RESERVES VFR Day211 VFR Night211 IFR Day11 IFR Night11 EXPERIENCE IN TYPE Takeoffs/landings3/60 Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter 200 to 1,000 Total Hours

Recent Time < > 30 AIRPORT CONDITION Crosswind50% Runway length75% Weather reports & forecasts1 hour VFR WEATHER Ceiling – Day2,000 Ceiling - Night3,000 Visibility – Day444 Visibility – Night666 IFR WEATHER Precision Approach - Ceiling60000 Precision Approach - Visibility200 Non-Precision Approach - Ceiling70000 Non-Precision Approach - Visibility200 Takeoff Minimum – Ceiling Takeoff Minimum - Visibility411 Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter 200 to 1,000 Total Hours

Recent Time < > 30 EXPERIENCE/RECENCY Takeoff/Landing3/603/90 Hours in make/model2/452/60 Instrument approaches1/30 Instrument hours1/30 PHYSICAL CONDITION Sleep8/24 Food & water444 Alcohol0/24 Drugs /Medication0/12 Stressful events0/3 Illness0/3 Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter Over 1,000 Total Hours

Recent Time < > 30 FUEL RESERVES VFR Day111 VFR Night221 IFR Day111 IFR Night221 EXPERIENCE IN TYPE Takeoffs/landings3/303/90 Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter Over 1,000 Total Hours

Recent Time < > 30 AIRPORT CONDITION Crosswind75% Runway length50% Weather reports & forecasts1 hour VFR WEATHER Ceiling – Day1,500 Ceiling - Night2,500 Visibility – Day444 Visibility – Night666 IFR WEATHER Precision Approach - Ceiling000 Precision Approach - Visibility000 Non-Precision Approach - Ceiling000 Non-Precision Approach - Visibility000 Takeoff Minimum – Ceiling200 Takeoff Minimum - Visibility111 Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter Over 1,000 Total Hours

Total Time < – 1,000> 1,000 TRIP PLANNING Allowance for delays90 min60 min Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter External Pressures

Add Your Own Rules You should now have an entry in all the blocks on the Personal Minimums Checklist that apply to you. You will notice that there are some blank lines on the checklist (in the yellow box). If you think of some items that should be included, feel free to add them. This is your checklist, so put whatever you think will help you plan and execute your flights more smoothly and safely. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

Add Your Own Rules Besides the traditional items like ceiling and visibility, your checklist also includes some Standard Operating Procedures -- like always carrying survival equipment if you are flying over dangerous or remote terrain. Again, you are free to add your own SOPs. Maybe you think it's a good idea to always carry a hand-held radio, particularly on IFR flights, just in case the aircraft's radio fails. If so, then write it down. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

Checklist Completed Congratulation, you have successfully created your Personal Minimums Checklist and SOP. Now, don't forget to sign it. By signing the checklist, you are making a contract with yourself to use and abide by the checklist. When you are through, go on to SUMMARY, by clicking the Next button. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

The Personal Minimums Checklist has been designed to help keep you from making unnecessary mistakes. As a result your flying will be more fun and less stressful. Don't forget to update your Checklist when something changes. For example, if you get more training or your recent experience increases, then you might want to change some of your personal minimums. Alternatively, if you don't fly for a long time, then you might want to make your personal minimums a bit more conservative. Discuss your SOP and personal minimums with an instructor to see if he or she agrees with your minimums and procedures Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter Summary

The Checklist in Action The personal minimums checklist has been designed to help keep you from making unnecessary mistakes. As a result, your flying will be more fun, and less stressful. Look at this video to see how using a personal minimums checklist makes this a smooth, and fun flight. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter You must be connected to the Internet for this video to work

Updating your Checklist After your personal minimums checklist is set, you should know that it is OK to update it from time to time. You may not have the opportunity to fly for a while, thus proficiency is lost. On the other hand, recent training or experiences sharpen your skills and this changes the originally set minimums. Try to remember, you should only reduce your minimums when a positive event occurs – such as increasing your experience or having training/instruction. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

Use your SOP Finally, this SOP will be worthless if you don't use it. Your checklist is important. Carry it with you in your flight kit. Once you have the weather information and planned your route, look over the checklist the way you would in an airplane. Everything will not apply to every trip, and no checklist can cover every situation. But, by using the checklist you will think about the issues and actually make a decision about them – avoiding a stressful or dangerous situation. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter

Credits This program was derived from the Personal Minimums Checklist program developed by the Office of Aerospace Medicine of the Federal Aviation Administration. Many people were instrumental in the development of the original program. Among them were: Dr. Richard Jensen, Ohio State University Dr. Larry Kirkbride, Ohio State University Dr. John Guilkey, Ohio State University John & Martha King, King Schools Roger Baker, FAA Flight Standards Service Dr. David Hunter, FAA Office of Aerospace Medicine

THE END I hope you found this presentation interesting, and that it makes you a more proficient, safer pilot. Copyright © 2012 David R. Hunter Please close this window to return to the web site (