WORLD HISTORY NOTES CHAPTER 6 SECTION 1 RELIGION AND SCIENCE ( ) The Scientific Revolution

Intellectual and cultural transformation  Began in Europe  1450 to 1750 Knowledge acquired through: careful observations, controlled experiments, the formulation of general laws, and mathematical expressions Less reliance on: the authority of the Bible, the Church, the speculations of ancient philosophers, or the received wisdom of cultural tradition

The Question of Origins: Why Europe? 12 th and 13 th centuries = Europeans developed a legal system that gave a measure of independence to a variety of institutions  Ex: the Church; towns and cities; workers’ guilds; professional organizations; universities Independence for universities = scholars had the freedom to pursue their studies without interference from the Church or political authorities Most of the major figures in the Scientific Revolution = trained in or affiliated with these universities Cambridge University in England

Why Not the Islamic World? Focus in colleges/universities = Quranic studies and religious law  Science was studied outside the formal system of higher education Religious scholars = viewed science and philosophy with suspicion  To them = Quran holds all the wisdom  Science might challenge the Quran  Science and philosophy lead to uncertainty and confusion

Why Not China? Chinese education = focused on preparing males for the civil service examinations  Focused on classical Confucian texts Chinese authorities = did not allow independent institutions of learning where scholars could pursue their studies freely

Nicolaus Copernicus Polish astronomer Started his career at University of Krakow in Poland in 1492 At the forefront of the Scientific Revolution Started at a time when few people dared to question old beliefs and superstitions

Nicolaus Copernicus Believed the Earth was round & that it rotated around the sun sun Said the sun, not the Earth, was the center of the universe Challenged the idea that the Earth was unique and at the center of God’s attention

Copernicus continued… His theory was known as the “Heliocentric Theory” Spent more than 25 years studying planetary movements. Did not publish his findings until 1543 (last year of his life) – “On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies”  Fear – contradicted religious beliefs  Tycho Brahe and Brahe’s assistant Johannes Kepler concluded that certain mathematical laws govern planetary motion.

Johannes Kepler German astronomer & mathematician Protestant Used math formulas to show that the planets revolved around the sun Planets moved in ellipses = ovals Planets don’t always travel at the same speed - move faster as they approach the sun

Johannes Kepler

Galileo Galilei Italian mathematician Improved the telescope to make it more powerful  Observed: sunspots, mountains on the moon, Jupiter’s moons Created the pendulum clock 1636 = published ideas on physics, astronomy, etc.  Book banned by the Catholic Church

Galileo Galilei Faced heated opposition by the Catholic Church. Why?  If The Church could be wrong about this then they could question other church teachings also – Catholic Church warned him not to defend ideas of Copernicus – published “Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems.” Which showed he clearly supported the Copernican Theory. Pope Paul V summoned him to stand trial by the Inquisition (Inquisition was a permanent institution in the Catholic Church charged with the eradication of heresies)

STOOD BEFORE THE COURT IN UNDER THE THREAT OF TORTURE, HE KNELT BEFORE THE INQUISITION AND READ ALOUD A SIGNED CONFESSION (PG 191). IN IT HE AGREED THAT THE IDEAS OF COPERNICUS WERE FALSE. HE LIVED UNDER HOUSE ARREST FOR THE REMAINDER OF HIS DAYS AND DIED IN IN 1992 THE CATHOLIC CHURCH OFFICIALLY ACKNOWLEDGED THAT GALILEO HAD BEEN CORRECT IN HIS FINDINGS. Galileo Galilei Continued…

Trial of Galileo

Sir Isaac Newton British scientist Below average student at Cambridge University Explored the most complicated mathematics of his day Studied Copernicus & Galileo

Sir Isaac Newton 1665 = plague closed Cambridge University & he was forced to go home to his family Sitting in his garden one day, he saw an apple fall -- helped him develop his theory of gravity 1687 = published theories about gravity  Prevents objects from flying off the Earth; also holds the solar system together  Believed that God was the creator of this orderly universe, the clockmaker who had set everything in motion.

Sir Isaac Newton Formulated modern laws of motion and mechanics Developed calculus = system of math that calculates changing forces or quantities Proved that math can be used to explain the universe

Francis Bacon English philosopher Truth found through investigation & evidence Helped develop scientific method 1. Observe 2. Make hypothesis 3. Test hypothesis 4. Conclusion

Rene Descartes French philosopher & mathematician Truth gained through mathematics and logical deduction (reason) Invented analytic geometry Famous quote = “I think, therefore I am.”

William Harvey English physician Concluded that blood circulates throughout the body, pumped by the heart and returning through the veins Before = people thought the liver digested food & processed it into blood

Robert Hooke English scientist Discovered the cell Used new microscope -- recognized cells in vegetable tissues

Robert Boyle Irish chemist Considered the Father of Modern Chemistry Established chemistry as a pure science Proved air wasn’t a basic element. Challenged Aristotle’s idea that the world consisted of four elements – earth, air, fire, and water. Boyle’s Law – explains how the volume, temperature, and pressure of gas effect each other.

Joseph Priestley English chemist & clergyman Did experiments about the properties of air and discovered the existence of oxygen His studies on carbon dioxide led to his invention of carbonated drinks (like soda)

Scientific Revolution Spreads Zacharias Janssen Zacharias Janssen (1590) – created first microscope (previously made eyeglasses) Evangelista Torricelli Evangelista Torricelli (1643) – developed the first mercury barometer - a tool for measuring atmospheric pressure and predicting weather. Gabriel Fahrenheit Gabriel Fahrenheit (1714) – made 1 st thermometer to use mercury in glass. (Freezing at 32 degrees) Anders Celsius Anders Celsius (1742) – created a separate scale for the mercury thermometer. (Freezing at 0 degrees).

Medicine and the Human Body Andreas Vesalius – proved ancient Greek physician named “Galen” wrong. Galen had only dissected pigs and other animals. Never a human body. Vesalius dissected human corpses and published his observations in the book, “ On the Structure of the Human Body (1543). It was filled with detailed illustrations of human organs, bones, and muscle. Edward Jenner (late 1700s) – introduced a vaccine to prevent smallpox.  Inoculation had been practiced in Asia for centuries (could be beneficial but could also be dangerous).  Jenner discovered that inoculation with germs from a cattle disease called “cowpox” gave permanent protection from smallpox for humans.  Greatly significant in the world of medicine and for the progression of mankind.

Conclusion The aforementioned thinkers helped to usher in a movement that challenged the age-old relationship between a government and its people and eventually changed forever the political landscape in numerous societies.