Cognitive Approaches Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Applying and Evaluating Piaget’s Theory Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development Cognitive Changes in Adulthood Cognitive Approaches

Processes of Development Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Processes of Development Piaget observed own 3 children; believed six processes used in constructing knowledge. Schemes Assimilation Accommodation Organization Equilibrium Equilibration

Schemes Actions or mental representations that organize knowledge: Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Schemes Actions or mental representations that organize knowledge: Behavioral schemes: Physical activities characterizing infancy. Mental schemes: Cognitive activities develop in childhood.

Assimilation and Accommodation Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Assimilation and Accommodation Both operate even in very young infants: Assimilation: Incorporate new information or experience into existing knowledge schemes. Accommodation: Adjust existing schemes to take in new information and experiences.

Organization Children cognitively organize experiences: Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Organization Children cognitively organize experiences: Grouping isolated behaviors into a higher-order cognitive system; receives continual refinement. Grouping items into categories.

Equilibrium and Equilibration Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Equilibrium and Equilibration Proposed explanation of cognitive shift (qualitative) from one stage of thought to next: Disequilibrium — creates motivation for change; shift occurs as children experience cognitive conflict. Equilibration — they resolve conflict through assimilation and accommodation, to reach a new balance or equilibrium of thought.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Stages of Development Piaget’s theory unifies experiences and biology to explain cognitive development. Motivation is internal search for equilibrium. Four stages of development…progressively advanced and qualitatively different.

Sensorimotor stage First of Piaget’s stages: Birth to about 2 years Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor stage First of Piaget’s stages: Birth to about 2 years Infants construct understanding of world by coordinating sensory experiences with motoric actions Contains six substages

Sensorimotor Substages Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Substages 2 3 1 Simple reflexes Basic means of coordinating sensation and action through reflexive behaviors First habits and primary circular reactions Infants’ infant’s attempt to reproduce interesting or pleasurable event (1-4 mos) Secondary circular reactions Infant is more object- oriented moving beyond preoccupation with the self (4-8 months)

Sensorimotor Substages Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Substages 4 5 6 Coordination of secondary circular reactions Significant changes in coordination of schemes and intentionality (8-12 mos) Tertiary circular reactions, novelty and curiosity Intrigued by objects’ many properties; explores new possibilities with them (12-18 mos) Internalization of Schemes Ability to use primitive symbols; shift to mental manipulation (18-24 mos)

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Object Permanence Understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched: One of infant’s most important accomplishments Acquired in stages Violation of expectations testing

Infant’s Understanding of Causality Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Infant’s Understanding of Causality (b) (c) (a)

Evaluating Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Evaluating Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage New research techniques suggest Piaget’s theory needs to be modified: Some abilities develop earlier Intermodal perception; substantiality and permanence of objects Transitions not as clear-cut; AB error No general theory on how development changes in cognition and nature-nurture issue

Preoperational Stage Second Piagetian developmental stage Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Preoperational Stage Second Piagetian developmental stage About 2 to 7 years of age; two substages Children begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings Not ready to perform Operations Internalized actions that allow children to do mentally what they only did physically before Reversible mental actions

The Symbolic Function Substage Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development The Symbolic Function Substage Symbolic function Egocentrism Animism First substage of preoperational thought; young child gains ability to represent mentally an object that is not present (2-4 years) Inability to distinguish between one’s own and another’s view Belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities, capable of action

The Three Mountains Task Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development The Three Mountains Task View 1 Child seated here (a) (b) (d) (c) View 2

The Symbolic Drawings of Young Children Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development The Symbolic Drawings of Young Children (a) A 31/2-year-old’s symbolic drawing. Halfway into this drawing, the 31/2-year-old artist said it was “a pelican kissing a seal.” (b) This 11-year-old’s drawing is neater and more realistic but also less inventive.

The Intuitive Thought Substage Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development The Intuitive Thought Substage Children begin using primitive reasoning and want to know answers to all sorts of questions (4-7 years): Why? questions exhaust adults Centration — focusing attention on one characteristic to exclusion of all others Conservation — object or substance amount stays same regardless of changing appearance; lacking in preoperational stage

Piaget’s Conservation Task Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Piaget’s Conservation Task

Some Dimensions of Conservation: Number, Matter, and Length Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Some Dimensions of Conservation: Number, Matter, and Length

Concrete Operational Stage Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Concrete Operational Stage Piaget’s third stage (7-11 years) Children can perform concrete operations Logical reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning if applied to specific, concrete examples Consider several characteristics of object at once Cross-cultural variations exist

Classification Skills Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Classification Skills Concrete operations child understands one person can be father, brother, and grandson Seriation — involves stimuli along quantitative dimension (e.g. length) Transitivity — if relation holds between first and second object, and holds between the second and third object, then it holds between first and third object

Classification: An Important Ability in Concrete Operational Thought Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Classification: An Important Ability in Concrete Operational Thought

Formal Operational Stage Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Formal Operational Stage Individuals move beyond concrete operations and think in more abstract and logical ways (11-15 years) Abstract, Idealistic, and Logical Thinking Verbal problem-solving ability increases Increased ability to think about thought itself Thought is full of idealism and possibilities

Formal Operational Stage Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Formal Operational Stage Children solve problems by trial-and-error Adolescents think more like scientists Hypothetical-deductive reasoning Have cognitive ability to develop hypotheses, or best guesses, and systematically deduce the best path to follow in solving a problem Assimilation dominates initial development

Adolescent Egocentrism Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Adolescent Egocentrism Heightened adolescents’ self-consciousness Imaginary audience Belief that others are as interested in them as they are Involves attention-getting behavior motivated by desire to be noticed, visible, and “on stage” Personal fable — adolescent’s sense of uniqueness and invincibility

Piaget and Education Take a constructivist approach Applying and Evaluating Piaget’s Theory Piaget and Education Take a constructivist approach Facilitate rather than direct learning Consider child’s knowledge, level of thinking Use ongoing assessment Promote the student’s intellectual health Turn classroom into setting of exploration and discovery

Evaluating Piaget’s Theory Applying and Evaluating Piaget’s Theory Evaluating Piaget’s Theory Contributions Vision of children as active, constructive thinkers Criticisms Some estimates of children’s competence is inaccurate Development not uniformly stage-like Effects of training underestimated Culture and education influence development

Applying and Evaluating Piaget’s Theory Neo-Piagetians Argue Piaget got some things right, but theory needs revision More emphasis to memory, attention, information-processing strategies, and processing speed

Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development Social contexts; minds are shaped by cultural context in which they live Tools are provided by society Children actively construct their knowledge and understanding through social interactions

The Zone of Proximal Development Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development The Zone of Proximal Development Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Tasks too difficult for children to master alone but that can be mastered with guidance and assistance from more-skilled person Scaffolding Changing level of support over course of a teaching session to fit child’s current performance level; dialogue is important tool

Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development

Vygotsky: Language and Thought Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development Vygotsky: Language and Thought Believed young children use language to plan, guide, and monitor behavior Language and thought initially develop independently, then merge Private speech: language of self-regulation Self talk (3 to 7 years of age) Inner speech: child’s thoughts

Teaching Strategies based on Vygotsky’s Theory Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development Teaching Strategies based on Vygotsky’s Theory Successfully applied to education Effectively assess child’s ZPD Use child’s ZPD in teaching Use more-skilled peers as teachers Monitor and encourage private speech Place instruction in meaningful context

Tools of the Mind Emphasizes child’s self-regulation Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development Tools of the Mind Emphasizes child’s self-regulation Give special attention to at-risk children Poverty Difficult conditions (e.g. homeless, drug problems in home) Dramatic play has central role in classroom Child writings are important

Evaluating Vygotsky’s theory Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development Evaluating Vygotsky’s theory Social constructionist approach Importance of skills valued by specific culture Knowledge constructed through social interactions (sociocultural) Criticisms: Overemphasize role of language Facilitators may be too helpful, overcontrolling

Piaget’s View of Adult Cognition Cognitive Changes in Adulthood Piaget’s View of Adult Cognition Thinking qualitatively in formal operations same as adolescents Adults have more knowledge Research shows: Many don’t reach highest level until adulthood Many adults don’t use formal operational thinking

Cognitive Changes in Adulthood Thinking of young adults is beyond formal operational stage of adolescents. It is… Realistic — Idealism decreases in face of real world constraints Pragmatic — Switch from acquiring knowledge to applying it Reflective and Relativistic — Move away from absolutist thinking of adolescence

Is There A Fifth, Postformal Stage? Cognitive Changes in Adulthood Is There A Fifth, Postformal Stage? Postformal thought is Reflective, relativistic, and contextual Provisional Realistic Open to emotions and subjective More research needed Another possible stage may be wisdom