1 Youth Employment in Asia and the Pacific: Equality at work for young women and men Key issues and strategies Nelien Haspels and Busakorn Suriyasarn ILO, Bangkok February 2002

2 Equality between women and men or Gender equality, refers to the equal rights, responsibilities, opportunities, treatment and valuation of women and men in employment and in training. Gender equality is about ensuring that all persons are treated with dignity and allowed to develop to their full potential, leading to a higher quality of life for all. It includes: the same human and workers’ rights equal value and fair distribution of: responsibilities and opportunities workload and decision making.

3 Trends in the labour market  Young and older women form an increasing share of the world’s labour force in Asia and worldwide. Women who are economically Women’s share in the labour force active (20-54 years) in 2000 in 2000 Region% Africa 58 Asia 64 Latin America 46 & Caribbean Europe 69 North America 73 Region% Worldwide (ILO 2000)41 Asia (ILO 2000)40 Thailand (NSO 1998) 45

4  shift from agriculture to manufacturing and services Table 3:Percentage distribution of the labour force, by sex, 1990/1997 in East, Southeast and South Asia Female labour force Male labour force Agriculture Industry Services Agriculture Industry Services East Asia South-east Asia South Asia ___________________________________________________________________ Source: UN, 2000: Prepared by the Statistics Division of the United Nations Secretariat from ILO, Key indicators of the Labour Market (table 4.), Geneva.

5  Young women migrants from rural areas predominate: in low skill jobs in labour intensive manufacturing industries & EPZs, but: decline of women in jobs when production becomes more skill, capital and technology intensive in the service sector in lower skilled jobs: -shop attendants -data entry, finance and administration workers -domestic workers -entertainment workers

6  Increase in low quality jobs for women: 3 D jobs: Dirty - Dangerous - Demeaning - lower quality working and employment conditions - flexi-jobs: irregular and part-time - little training or promotion prospects - no or little job or social security, dismissal upon marriage or pregnancy - in the informal sector as subcontracted or own account workers Gender wage gap: Wide-spread discrimination on basis of sex: Women earn typically 2/3 of men’s earnings Only partly due to less education and work experience.

7 WHY: direct and indirect discrimination.  Direct gender or sex discrimination: Someone is not hired or not promoted, because of his or her sex, and this is stated openly. For example: Sales executives wanted:Dispatch drivers needed: Attractive females Young able-bodied men years are invited to apply, are invited to apply, enclose photograph and CV. enclose copy of driving license and CV.  Indirect discrimination: No explicit exclusion of one sex officially, but exclusion of one sex because of preferences or gender stereotypes.

8 þGender stereotyping: Common beliefs on suitable work for men and women: All women are mothers first, and all girls become mothers. Men are better in technology and handling machines Women’s ‘nimble’ fingers and patience qualify them for repetitive low-skilled work in factories Men are natural leaders and managers Women are last hired and first fired: If jobs are scarce, men should be given preference as they are considered to be the main income earners.

9 þJob Segregation: Men’s - Women’s Jobs: Horizontal segregation = across jobs women cooks - men guards Vertical segregation in job hierarchy: women workers - men supervisors

10 Horizontal segregation: women in narrower range of occupations horizontal segregation going down: world wide lowest in Asia, except China more women in men’s jobs, not more men in women’s jobs women jobs: less pay, status, career options

11 Vertical segregation in job hierarchy: Higher in Asia and the Pacific than in other parts of the world Old idea: not enough qualified women out of date, but Glass ceiling remains intact worldwide: - <20% women in management position - 1-5% women in top jobs

12 Horizontal and vertical sex segregation in enterprises: Glass ceiling & walls Support staff (majority women) Female graduates Male graduates

13 Equality in practice is good for workers and businesses It is the right and the smart thing to do: Social justice and sound economic sense Sex is not an indicator of competence Equality in recruitment means choosing from the widest pool of talent Benefits to the enterprise: because of diversity of approach, background and priorities: Balanced mix of ‘feminine’ and ‘masculine’ attributes e.g. competitive, decisive, forceful, cooperative, consensus - oriented, (too) emotional, sensitive, ‘people management’ Good image of companies

14 How to promote equality in youth employment 1.Labour market information needs to be disaggregated (broken down) by sex and age. 2.Equal employment policies (EEOP) = Commitment to employment practices and procedures which: -do not discriminate - provide equality to all irrespective of age, sex or other grounds to achieve productive and freely chosen employment 3.Practical measures

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16 Practical measures: step-by-step approach 1.Identification of bottlenecks and opportunities for promotion of equality in -job recruitment -selection -promotion -transfer or training 2.When recruiting: -advertisements should not indicate a preference for applicants of a certain group or sex unless the preference is clearly justified -encourage everybody to apply, select adequate information channels reaching young men and women -selection criteria, tests and interviews should be related to job competencies and be the same for everybody

17 Practical measures: step-by-step approach (continued) 3. At the workplace: - ensure respect and a healthy working environment free of (sexual) harassment for all workers - ensure that workplaces are family friendly. 4. Positive action, also known as ‘positive discrimination’ or ‘affirmative action’ = Practical temporary measures to combat the direct and indirect results of past discrimination by favouring training and employment opportunities for the group suffering from past discrimination.

18 Examples of practical measures: Setting a quota or target, for example: If in a company all supervisors are men, a certain percentage of positions are set aside for women. Quota is a stronger measure than a target: Quota : No men are recruited until the desired number of suitable women staff is on board Target : Suitable women will be recruited in addition to suitable men.

Equality in Training Education Vocational Skills Training

20 Education – the big picture Progress Higher enrolment for girls and women: - at primary level in almost all countries - similar enrolment between men and women at tertiary level in industrialized countries However Gender gaps in access to education still remain: - at primary level in South Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa & Arab region - higher enrolment rates for boys and young men in developing countries - illiteracy among girls & women in low-income countries; higher among adult women

21 Education – the big picture Progress Worldwide increase in access to education for women and girls provide them with better employment. Women and girls have performed as well as men and boys in all levels of education. However Gender equality in education is insufficient to overcome job segregation and wage disparities. Gender equality in access to education is not matched with equal access to vocational and on-the-job training. Women’s lack of access to quality training = bottleneck to gender equality at work.

22 Obstacles in skills training Less training in a few skills of low demand: sex segregation segregation in job in education & training Women are trained in limited number of skills considered “suitable” to women. Training is often supply-driven, not based on demands of local job market. Women tend to be trained for self-employment in similar skills and in shorter courses, while men are in formal vocational training with longer duration.

23 Once in the job market, Women tend to: receive only minimal on-the-job training be under-represented in retraining programmes have extremely limited opportunities for apprenticeship Because: women often work part-time or for short period of time training schemes favour the better educated and better skilled who are usually men workplace-based training is often under direct responsibility of employers: only few have equal opportunity policies

24 Lack of access to retraining, Women who are particularly at risk: 1. Women who spend some time out of the labour market because of pregnancies, child care or other family responsibilities 2. Retrenched women workers who carried out largely unskilled work in industries, which collapsed due to economic transitions or reforms.

25 In some countries: Women tend to be excluded from handling equipment, machines and new technologies. Women are encouraged to enter new fields such as information technology and finance sector.

26 Training for self-employment and entrepreneurship Women are major actors in growth of micro- and small enterprises around the world. Between gap between men and women as “employers and own account workers” narrowed from 26 to 40 women for every 100 men. However, women predominate in smaller, more precarious, subsistence type of businesses with low returns. Training in self-employment for women is being organized in many countries but suffers from low quality and limited skills, among others.

27 Vicious cycle of lack of training and low-quality, low-pay work concentration in low-skilled jobs with no prospects Lack of education few women in high-tech & training or capital-intensive fields which provide better training women seen are primarily family care-takers, hence higher risk for skills investments

28 Priorities in training & retraining for girls and women (1) Adoption of explicit equal opportunity goals and measures in vocational training systems Meaningful inclusion of both males and females in the full range of standard vocational training programmes, rather than provision of traditionally female-oriented skills to women only. Progressive revision of all training curricula to avoid gender stereotyping and promote equality between the sexes

29 Priorities in training & retraining for girls and women (2) Encouraging both boys and girls to go into non-traditional occupations to break existing patterns of job segregation, e.g., girls into scientific and technical fields and boys into jobs in the care sector EFFECTIVE MEASURES INCLUDE: Introduction of technical, science and care subjects including life skills for boys and girls in the formal educational system from the primary level onwards Career counseling for school-leavers which discourages gender stereotyping and channels both girls and boys into marketable and productive occupations in new fields Job placement programmes

30 Priorities in training & retraining for girls and women (3) Establishment of more effective linkages between training systems and labour markets, so that girls and women are trained in employable skills alongside boys and men. PRACTICAL MEASURES INCLUDE: Combining classroom with workplace-based training Seeking the active involvement of employers in selecting types of training, in job-search programmes, in job-placement schemes and obtaining their commitment to gender equality in employment

31 Priorities in training & retraining for girls and women (4) Special tailor-made training for potentially vulnerable groups of women, e.g., women prone to migration to urban centers or to foreign countries, ethnic minority women who may lack cultural and language skills – realistic information and basic life skills as protection against exploitation and abuse Awareness raising among men workers on their role in sharing family responsibilities could be incorporated in many work- place based training programmes. Training in prevention of sexual harassment and gender-based violence at work in vocational training situations

32 Priorities in training & retraining for girls and women (5) Development of flexible training programmes for young and adult women and men with family responsibilities, who need or seek to combine paid and unpaid work in terms of the design, delivery and location of the training (e.g., child care services) Integrated training for women who will become self-employed consisting of relevant and productive vocational skills training and enterprise development Special measures such as targeted information campaigns may need to be designed to facilitate the entry of workers with family responsibilities into labour market-based training and retraining programmes

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