Chapter 5

 If attackers cannot get access to your resources, they cannot attack them  This chapter presents a number of important access control tools, such as reusable passwords and biometrics  We covered crypto before access controls because many access controls use cryptograpy  However, not all access controls use crypto, and those that do usually use it for only part of their process Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Access Controls ◦ Firms must limit access to physical and electronic resources ◦ Access control is the policy-driven control of access to systems, data, and dialogues  Cryptography ◦ Many access control tools use cryptography to some extent ◦ However, cryptography is only part of what they do and how they work Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 The AAA Protections ◦ Authentication—supplicant sends credentials to verifier to authenticate the supplicant ◦ Authorization—what permissions the authenticated user will have  What resources he or she can get to at all  What he or she can do with these resources ◦ Auditing—recording what people do in log files  Detecting attacks  Identifying breakdowns in implementation Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Beyond Passwords ◦ Passwords used to be sufficiently strong ◦ This is no longer true thanks to increasing computer speeds available to hackers ◦ Companies must move to better authentication options Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Credentials Are Based On ◦ What you know (e.g., a password) ◦ What you have (e.g., an access card) ◦ What you are, or (e.g., your fingerprint) ◦ What you do (e.g., speaking a passphrase) Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Two-Factor Authentication ◦ Use two forms of authentication for defense in depth ◦ Example: access card and personal identification number (PIN) ◦ Multifactor authentication: two or more types of authentication ◦ But this can be defeated by a Trojan horse on the user’s PC ◦ It can also be defeated by a man-in-the-middle attack by a fake website Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Individual and Role-Based Access Control ◦ Individual access control—base access rules on individual accounts ◦ Role-based access control (RBAC)  Base access rules on organizational roles (buyer, member of a team, etc.)  Assign individual accounts to roles to give them access to the role’s resources  Cheaper and less error-prone than basing access rules on individual accounts Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Human and Organizational Controls ◦ People and organizational forces may circumvent access protections Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Mandatory and Discretionary Access Control ◦ Mandatory access control (MAC)  No departmental or personal ability to alter access control rules set by higher authorities ◦ Discretionary access control (DAC)  Departmental or personal ability to alter access control rules set by higher authorities ◦ MAC gives stronger security but is very difficult to implement Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Multilevel Security ◦ Resources are rated by security level  Public  Sensitive but unclassified  Secret  Top secret ◦ People are given the same clearance level Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Multilevel Security ◦ Some rules are simple  People with a secret clearance cannot read top secret documents ◦ Some rules are complex  What if a paragraph from a top secret document is placed in a secret document? ◦ Access control models have been created to address multilevel security  Will not discuss because not pertinent to corporations Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 ISO/IEC 27002’s Security Clause 9, Physical and Environmental Security  Risk Analysis Must Be Done First  ISO/IEC 9.1: Secure Areas ◦ Securing the building’s physical perimeter (single point of entry, emergency exits, etc.) ◦ Implementing physical entry controls  Access should be justified, authorized, logged, and monitored Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 ISO/IEC 9.1: Secure Areas ◦ Securing public access, delivery, and loading areas ◦ Securing offices, rooms, and facilities ◦ Protecting against external and environmental threats ◦ Creating rules for working in secure areas  Limit unsupervised work, forbid data recording devices, etc. Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 9.2 Equipment Security ◦ Equipment siting and protection  Siting means locating or placing (same root as site) ◦ Supporting utilities (electricity, water, HVAC)  Uninterruptible power supplies, electrical generators  Frequent testing Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 9.2 Equipment Security ◦ Cabling security (conduits, underground wiring, etc.) ◦ Security during offsite equipment maintenance  Permission for taking offsite  Removal of sensitive information Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 9.2 Equipment Security ◦ Security of equipment off-premises  Constant attendance except when locked securely  Insurance ◦ Secure disposal or reuse of equipment  Removal of all sensitive information ◦ Rules for the removal of property Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Terrorism ◦ Building setback from street ◦ Armed guards ◦ Bullet-proof glass  Piggybacking ◦ Following an authorized user through a door ◦ Also called tailgating ◦ Psychologically difficult to prevent ◦ But piggybacking is worth the effort to prevent Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Monitoring Equipment ◦ CCTV ◦ Tapes wear out ◦ High-resolution cameras are expensive and consume a great deal of disk space ◦ Low-resolution cameras may be insufficient for recognition needs ◦ To reduce storage, use motion sensing Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Dumpster [TM] Diving ◦ Protect building trash bins that may contain sensitive information ◦ Maintain trash inside the corporate premises and monitor until removed  Desktop PC Security ◦ Locks that connect the computer to an immovable object ◦ Login screens with strong passwords Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Reusable Passwords ◦ A password that is used multiple times ◦ Almost all passwords are reusable passwords ◦ A one-time password is used only once Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Difficulty of Cracking Passwords by Guessing Remotely ◦ Account is usually locked after a few login failures  Password-Cracking Programs ◦ Password-cracking programs exist  Run on a computer to crack its passwords or  Run on a downloaded password file Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Password-Cracking Programs ◦ Brute-force password guessing  Try all possible passwords of Length 1, Length 2, etc.  Thwarted by passwords that are long and complex (using all keyboard characters)  N is the password length, in characters  Alphabet, no case: N 26 possible passwords  Alphabet, upper and lower case (N 52 )  Alphanumeric (letters and digits) (N 62 )  All keyboard characters (~N 80 ) Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall Password Length in Characters Low Complexity: Alphabetic, No Case (N=26) Alphabetic, Case-Sensitive (N=52) Alphanumeric: Letters and Digits (N=62) High Complexity: All Keyboard Characters (N=80) ,7043,8446, ,9767,311,61614,776,33640,960, ,915,77619,770,609, ,800,235, E E E E E E E E E+19 Note: On average, an attacker will have to try half of all combinations.

 Password-Cracking Programs ◦ Dictionary attacks  However, many people do not choose random passwords  Dictionary attacks on common word passwords are almost instantaneous  Names of people and pets  Names of ports teams, etc.  Hybrid dictionary attacks on common word variants (e.g., Processing1) Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Other Password Threats ◦ Keystroke Capture Software  Trojan horse displays a fake login screen, reports its finding to attackers ◦ Shoulder Surfing  Attacker watches as the victim types a password  Even partial information can be useful  Part of the password: P_ _sw_ _d  Length of the password (reduces time to do brute-force cracking) Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Password Strength Policies ◦ Password policies must be long and complex  At least 8 characters long  Change of case, not at beginning  Digit (0 through 9), not at end  Other keyboard character, not at end  Example: tri6#Vial ◦ Completely random passwords are best but usually are written down ◦ Testing and enforcing passwords Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Other Password Policies ◦ Not using the same password at multiple sites ◦ Password duration policies ◦ Shared password policies (makes auditing impossible) ◦ Disabling passwords that are no longer valid Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Other Password Policies ◦ Lost passwords (password resets)  Opportunities for social engineering attacks  Automated password resets use secret questions (Where were you born?)  Many can be guessed with a little research, rendering passwords useless Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 The End of Passwords? ◦ Many firms want to eliminate passwords because of their weaknesses ◦ Quite a few firms have already largely phased them out Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Access Cards ◦ Magnetic stripe cards ◦ Smart cards  Have a microprocessor and RAM  Can implement public key encryption for challenge/response authentication ◦ In selection decision, must consider cost and availability of card readers Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

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 Tokens ◦ Constantly changing password devices for one-time passwords ◦ USB plug-in tokens Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Proximity Access Tokens ◦ Use Radio Frequency ID (RFID) technology ◦ Supplicant only has to be near a door or computer to be recognized  Addressing Loss and Theft ◦ Both are frequent ◦ Card cancellation  Requires a wired network for cancellation speed  Must cancel quickly if risks are considerable Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Two-Factor Authentication Needed because of Ease of Loss and Theft ◦ PINs (Personal Identification Numbers) for the second factor  Short: 4 to 6 digits  Can be short because attempts are manual  Should not choose obvious combinations (1111, 1234) or important dates ◦ Other forms of two-factor authentication  Store fingerprint template on device; check supplicant with a fingerprint reader Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Biometric Authentication ◦ Authentication based on biological (bio) measurements (metrics).  Biometric authentication is based on something you are (your fingerprint, iris pattern, face, hand geometry, and so forth)  Or something you do (write, type, and so forth). ◦ The major promise of biometrics is to make reusable passwords obsolete Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Biometric Systems (Figure 5-11) ◦ Enrollment (enrollment scan, process for key features, store template)  Scan data is variable (scan fingerprint differently each time)  Key features extracted from the scan should be the nearly the same ◦ Later access attempts provide access data, which will be turned into key feature data for comparison with the template Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Biometric Systems (Figure 5-11) ◦ Biometric access key features will never be exactly the same as the template ◦ There must be configurable decision criteria for deciding how close a match (match index) to require  Requiring an overly exact match index will cause many false rejections  Requiring too loose a match index will cause more false acceptances Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

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 Errors versus Deception  False Acceptance Rates (FARs) ◦ Percentage of people who are identified or verified as matched to a template but should not be  False Rejection Rates (FRRs) ◦ Percentage of people who should be identified or verified as matches to a template but are not Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Which is Worse? ◦ It depends on the situation Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall SituationFalse acceptance False rejection Identification for computer access Security Violation Inconvenience Verification for computer access Security Violation Inconvenience Watch list for door access Security Violation Inconvenience Watch list for terroristsInconvenienceSecurity Violation

 Vendor Claims for FARs and FRRs ◦ Tend to be exaggerated through tests under ideal conditions  Failure to Enroll (FTE) ◦ Subject cannot enroll in system ◦ E.g., poor fingerprints due to construction work, clerical work, age, etc.) Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Deception ◦ Errors: when subject is not trying to fool the system ◦ Deception: when subject is trying to fool the system  Hide face from cameras used for face identification  Impersonate someone by using a gelatin finger on a fingerprint scanner  Etc. Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Deception ◦ Many biometric methods are highly vulnerable to deception  Fingerprint scanners should only be used where the threat of deception is very low  Fingerprint scanners are better than passwords because there is nothing to forget  Fingerprint scanners are good for convenience rather than security Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Verification ◦ Supplicant claims to be a particular person ◦ Is the supplicant who he or she claims to be? ◦ Compare access data to a single template (the claimed identity) ◦ Verification is good to replace passwords in logins ◦ If the probability of a false acceptance (false match) probability is 1/1000 per template match,  The probability of a false acceptance is 1/1000 (0.1%) Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Identification ◦ Supplicant does not state his or her identity ◦ System must compare supplicant data to all templates to find the correct template ◦ If the probability of a false acceptance (false match) probability is 1/1000 per template match,  If there are 500 templates in the database, then  the probability of a false acceptance is 500 * 1/1000 (50%) ◦ Good for door access Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Watch Lists ◦ Subset of identification ◦ Goal is to identify members of a group:  Terrorists  People who should be given access to an equipment room Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Watch Lists ◦ More comparisons than validation but fewer than identification, so the risk of a false acceptance is intermediate ◦ If the probability of a false acceptance (false match) probability is 1/1000 per template match,  If there are 10 templates in the watch list, then  The probability of a false acceptance is 10 * 1/1000 (1%) Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Fingerprint Recognition ◦ Simple, inexpensive, well proven ◦ Most biometrics today is fingerprint recognition ◦ Often can be defeated with latent fingerprints on glasses copied to gelatin fingers ◦ However, fingerprint recognition can take the place of reusable passwords for low-risk applications Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Iris Recognition ◦ Pattern in colored part of eye ◦ Uses a camera (no light is shined into eye, as in Hollywood movies) ◦ Very low FARs ◦ Very expensive Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Face Recognition ◦ Surreptitious identification is possible (in airports, etc.) ◦ Surreptitious means without the subject’s knowledge ◦ High error rates, even without deception  Hand Geometry for Door Access ◦ Shape of hand ◦ Reader is very large, so usually used for door access Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Voice Recognition ◦ High error rates ◦ Easily deceived by recordings  Other Forms of Biometric Authentication ◦ Veins in the hand ◦ Keystroke recognition (pace in typing password) ◦ Signature recognition (hand-written signature) ◦ Gait (way the person walks) recognition Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Key Points from Chapter 3 ◦ Cryptographic systems have initial and message- by-message authentication ◦ MS-CHAP uses passwords for initial authentication ◦ Electronic signatures provide message-by-message authentication  Key-Hashed Message Authentication Codes (HMACs) are fast and inexpensive  Digital signatures with digital certificates are extremely strong but slow ◦ Chapter 3 did not mention that public key authentication with digital certificates are also good for initial authentication Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Public Key Infrastructures (PKIs) (Figure 5-16) ◦ Firms can be their own certificate authorities (CAs) ◦ But this requires a great deal of labor ◦ Provisioning  Giving the user access credentials Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

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 Public Key Infrastructures (PKIs) (Figure 5-16) ◦ Provisioning  Human registration is often the weakest link  If an impostor is given credentials, no technology access controls will work  Limit who can submit names for registration  Limit who can authorize registration  Have rules for exceptions  Must have effective terminating procedures  Supervisors and Human Resources department must assist Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Authorizations ◦ Authentication: Proof of identity ◦ Authorization: The assignment of permissions (specific authorizations) to individuals or roles ◦ Just because you are authenticated does not mean that you should be able to do everything Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Principle of Least Permissions ◦ Initially give people only the permissions a person absolutely needs to do his or her job ◦ If assignment is too narrow, additional permissions may be given  If assignment is too narrow, the system fails safely Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Principle of Least Permissions ◦ System has permissions A, B, C, D, E, and F  Person needs A, C, and E  If only given A and C, can add E later although user will be inconvenienced  Errors tend not to create security problems  Fails safely ◦ This will frustrate users somewhat Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Giving Extensive or Full Permissions Initially Is Bad ◦ User will almost always have the permissions to do its job ◦ System has permissions A, B, C, D, E, and F  Person needs A, C, and E  If only given all and take away B and D, still has F  Errors tend to create security problems Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Giving Extensive or Full Permissions Initially Is Bad ◦ Assignments can be taken away, but this is subject to errors ◦ Such errors could give excessive permissions to the user ◦ This could allow the user to take actions contrary to security policy ◦ Giving all or extensive permissions and taking some away does not fail safely Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Auditing ◦ Authentication: Who a person is ◦ Authorization: What a person may do with a resource ◦ Auditing: What the person actually did Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Logging ◦ Events ◦ On a server, logins, failed login attempts, file deletions, and so forth ◦ Events are stored in a log file Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Log Reading ◦ Regular log reading is crucial or the log becomes a useless write-only memory ◦ Periodic external audits of log file entries and reading practices ◦ Automatic alerts for strong threats Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

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Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall Domains are Controlled by Domain Controllers Domains are Controlled by Domain Controllers The Corporation is Divided Into Microsoft Domains The Corporation is Divided Into Microsoft Domains Each Domain Controller Runs Kerberos and AD Each Domain Controller Runs Kerberos and AD A Domain Can Have Multiple Domain Controllers A Domain Can Have Multiple Domain Controllers

Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall Not Shown: There Can be a Forest of Trees Not Shown: There Can be a Forest of Trees There Can be a Tree of Domains There Can be a Tree of Domains Domain Controllers in Parent and Child Domains Do Partial Replication Domain Controllers in Parent and Child Domains Do Partial Replication Domain Controllers in a Domain Do Total Replication Domain Controllers in a Domain Do Total Replication

 Trust ◦ One directory server will accept information from another  Trust Directionality ◦ Mutual  A trusts B and B trusts A ◦ One-Way  A trusts B or B trusts A, but not both Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Trust Transitivity ◦ Transitive Trust  If A trusts B  and B trusts C,  then A trusts C automatically ◦ Intransitive Trust  If A trusts B  and B trusts C,  This does NOT mean that A trusts C automatically Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall A Metadirectory Server Synchronizes Multiple Directory Servers A Metadirectory Server Synchronizes Multiple Directory Servers

Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall In Federated Identity Management, Business Partners do not Access Each Other’s Databases. Instead, They Send Assertions About a Person. The Receiver Trusts the Assertions. In Federated Identity Management, Business Partners do not Access Each Other’s Databases. Instead, They Send Assertions About a Person. The Receiver Trusts the Assertions.

Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall Types of Assertions: Authentication, Authorizations, Attributes. Assertions are Standardized by SAML. SAML Uses XML for Platform Independence. Types of Assertions: Authentication, Authorizations, Attributes. Assertions are Standardized by SAML. SAML Uses XML for Platform Independence.

 Definition ◦ Identity management is the centralized policy- based management of all information required for access to corporate systems by a person, machine, program, or other resource. Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Benefits of Identity Management ◦ Reduction in the redundant work needed to manage identity information ◦ Consistency in information ◦ Rapid changes ◦ Central auditing ◦ Single sign-on ◦ Increasingly required to meet compliance requirements ◦ At least reduced sign-on when SSO is impossible Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Identity ◦ The set of attributes about a person or nonhuman resource that must be revealed in a particular context  Subordinate to a particular person  Manager of a department  Buyer dealing with another company  Manager responsible for a database ◦ Principle of minimum identity data: only reveal the information necessary in a particular context Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Identity Management ◦ Initial credential checking ◦ Defining identities (pieces of information to be divulged) ◦ Managing trust relationships ◦ Provisioning, reprovisioning if changes, and deprovisioning Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

 Identity Management ◦ Implementing controlled decentralization  Do as much administration as possible locally  This requires tight policy controls to avoid problems ◦ Providing self-service functions for non-sensitive information  Marital status, etc. Copyright Pearson Prentice-Hall

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