C H A P T E R 8 The Information-Processing Approach © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update C H A P T E R 8 The Information-Processing Approach

The Phenomenon of Memory Memory - learning that has persisted over time. OBJECTIVE 24-1| Define memory, and explain how flashbulb memories differ from other memories. Psychology 7e in Modules

Stages of Memory Keyboard (Encoding) Disk (Storage) Monitor RETRIEVAL ENCODING STORAGE Getting information into memory Retaining information over time Taking information out of storage Keyboard (Encoding) Disk (Storage) Monitor (Retrieval) Sequential Process

Flashbulb Memory Flashbulb memory - a highly emotional event can cause a clear, strong, and persistent memory. Psychology 7e in Modules

Characteristics of Information-Processing (c) 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update Characteristics of Information-Processing The information-processing approach to learning emphasizes that children manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Thinking: To perceive, encode, represent, and store information from the world Self-modification: Represented by metacognition, “knowing about knowing” Change Mechanisms: Encoding – Getting information into memory Automaticity – Processing information with little effort Strategy Construction – Discovering new processing procedures Generalization – applying info to other settings 8.5

What Is Attention? Attention is the focusing of mental processes Sustained attention Selective attention Divided attention

The Information-Processing Approach © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update The Information-Processing Approach Memory What Is Memory? Retrieval and Forgetting Encoding Storage 8.7

(c) 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved (c) 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update Enter the Debate Should teachers require students to engage in rote memorization? YES NO During a slideshow, text may be written on the slides in the yes/no boxes, and then saved for later reference. 8.8

Consistent repetition of Adds to distinctiveness © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update Encoding REHEARSAL Consistent repetition of information over time DEEP PROCESSING Deeper processing, better memory ATTENTON Concentrate and Focus ORGANIZATION Aided by chunking CONSTRUCTING IMAGES ELABORATION Adds to distinctiveness 8.9

Getting Students to Pay Attention © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update Getting Students to Pay Attention Encourage attention and minimize distraction Use cues and gestures for important material Be interesting Focus on active learning and be aware of individual differences Use media and technology to make learning enjoyable 8.10

Organizing items into familiar, manageable unit. Chunking Organizing items into familiar, manageable unit. 1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1 chunk the number and see if you can recall it easier. 1776 1492 1812 1941.

Encoding Summarized in a Hierarchy

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Theory © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Theory 8.13

Long-Term Memory – Unlimited capacity over a long period of time © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update Memory’s Time Frames Sensory Memory – Retains information for a fraction of a second until 2 seconds Short-Term Memory – Limited capacity; retain for 30 seconds without rehearsal Long-Term Memory – Unlimited capacity over a long period of time 8.14

Sensory Memory – Retains information for a fraction of a second until 2 seconds Iconic 0.5 sec. long Echoic 3-4 sec. long Hepatic < 1 sec. long

Working memory, a new name for short-term memory. Short-Term Memory – Limited capacity; retain for 30 seconds without rehearsal 7 ± 2 bits of info Working memory, a new name for short-term memory. George Miller

F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M Chunking F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M FBI TWA CIA IBM 4 chunks

Developmental Changes in Memory © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update Developmental Changes in Memory 8.18

Baddeley’s Model of Memory © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update Baddeley’s Model of Memory 8.19

Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare. Implicit memory involves learning an action, and the individual does not know or declare what she knows. OBJECTIVE 26-6| Distinguish between implicit and explicit memory, and identify the main brain structure associated with each. Episodic Memory Semantic Memory Psychology 7e in Modules

Hippocampus Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories. Weidenfield & Nicolson archives

Anterograde Amnesia After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient HM remembers everything before the operation but cannot make new memories. We call this anterograde amnesia. Anterograde Amnesia (HM) Memory Intact No New Memories Surgery

Implicit Memory HM is unable to make new memories that are declarative (explicit) but he can form new memories that are procedural (implicit). C B A HM learnt the Tower of Hanoi (game) after his surgery. Each time he plays it he is unable to remember the fact that he has already played the game.

Cerebellum Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain that processes implicit memories.

Retrieval Primacy Effect Serial Position Specificity Recall (c) 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update Retrieval Primacy Effect items at the beginning remembered best Serial Position recall better at the beginning and end of list Specificity associations form cues Recall previously learned information, as in fill-in-the-blank Recognition identify learned information, as in multiple choice 8.25

Serial Position Effect TUV ZOF GEK WAV XOZ TIK FUT WIB SAR POZ REY GIJ (Primacy Effect) Better recall (Recency Effect) Poor recall

Retrieval Cues Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory. water smell hose Fire Truck fire OBJECTIVE 27-2| Explain how retrieval cues help us access stored memories, and describe the process of priming. smoke truck heat red Psychology 7e in Modules

Context Effects (encoding specificity) According to the principle of encoding specificity, the way we code a word during original learning determines which cues will remind us of that word later.

Context Effects OBJECTIVE 27-3| Cite some ways that context can affect retrieval. Psychology 7e in Modules

(c) 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved (c) 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update

Forgetting Inability to retrieve information, due to poor encoding, storage or retrieval. Forgetting is due to: Encoding Failure Storage Decay Lack of Retrieval Cues Interference OBJECTIVE 28-1| Explain why we should value our ability to forget, and distinguish three general ways our memory fails us. Psychology 7e in Modules

Forgetting as Interference

Proactive interference – problem driving in England after learning in US.

Retroactive Interference Sleep avoids retroactive interference thus leading to better recall.

Why do we forget?

Improving Memory Promote understanding (c) 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update Improving Memory Promote understanding Assist organization of knowledge Teach mnemonics Method of loci Rhymes Acronyms Keyword 8.36

(c) 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved (c) 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update The method of loci – First learn a list of places, such as “my desk, the door of my room, the corridor, . . .”

Method of Loci List of Items Imagined Locations Charcoal Backyard Pens Bed Sheets Hammer . Rug Imagined Locations Backyard Study Bedroom Garage . Living Room

Rhymes “i before e except after c thirty days hath September, April, June, and November The alphabet song

Pegword Method One is a bun Two is a shoe Three is a tree Four is a door Five is a hive Six is sticks Seven is heaven Eight is a gate Nine is a swine Ten is a hen

Both photos: Ho/AP Photo Visual Encoding Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid especially when combined with semantic encoding. OBJECTIVE 25-4| Explain how encoding imagery aids effortful processing, and describes some memory-enhancing strategies that use visual encoding. Both photos: Ho/AP Photo Psychology 7e in Modules

(c) 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved (c) 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update

Acronyms HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior PEMDAS = Parentheses, Exponent, Multiply, Divide, Add, Subtract ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet

Keyword Method Carta = letter

Memory Construction Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

Misinformation and Imagination Effects Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned about the event. OBJECTIVE 28-6| Explain how misinformation and imagination can distort our memory of an event. Depiction of the actual accident. Psychology 7e in Modules

Misinformation Group A: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? Group B: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?

Memory Construction A week later they were asked; Was there any broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit).

Source Amnesia: Attributing an event to the wrong source OBJECTIVE 28-7| Describe source amnesia’s contributions to false memories. Psychology 7e in Modules

False Memories False Memory Syndrome A false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists. Psychology 7e in Modules

Constructed Memories if false memories (lost at the mall, or drowned in a lake) are implanted in individuals, they construct (fabricate) their memories. Don Shrubshell

Information Processing Theory Theory into Practice (c) 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update Information Processing Theory Theory into Practice Ms. Blackwood has assigned her students 20 spelling words to learn for the week. She notices that most of her students have no problems remembering how to spell the first few and the last few words, but many struggle with those in the middle of the list. A: Serial position effect. We tend to remember things that come first and last and forget the rest. Q: Why might students have an easier time remembering how to spell the first and last few words, but struggle with those in the middle of the list? Explain. 8.52

The Information-Processing Approach © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update The Information-Processing Approach Expertise Expertise and Teaching Expertise and Learning Acquiring Expertise 8.53

Experts… Have superior recall, use “chunking” of information © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update Experts… Have superior recall, use “chunking” of information Organize around important ideas and concepts Demonstrate effortless retrieval by taking the time to formulate a plan Are flexible rather than having a rigid, fixed routine Though talented, develop learning and study strategies Spread out learning Ask questions/take good notes Use a study system 8.54

The Information-Processing Approach © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update The Information-Processing Approach Metacognition Strategies and Metacognitive Regulation Developmental Changes The Good Information- Processing Model 8.55

“Knowing about knowing” Metacognitive Knowledge Metacognitive Activity © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update Metacognition “Knowing about knowing” Metacognitive Knowledge Monitoring and reflecting on one’s current or recent thoughts Metacognitive Activity Students consciously adapt and manage their thinking strategies during problem solving and purposeful thinking 8.56

Learning strategies Distributive practice versus massed practice Question oneself (reflection) Take good notes – summarize, outline, concept maps Use a study system – PQ4R Preview Question Read Reflect Recite Review

Improving Metacognitive Skills © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update Improving Metacognitive Skills Improvement of metacognitive skills results from: Developmental changes as student matures cognitively The Good Information-Processing model that includes specific learning strategies, knowing the similarities and differences in multiple strategies, and the benefits of using them Monitoring the effectiveness of strategies and modifying when necessary 8.58