Politics of the Middle East Islamic International Relations

An Islamic Theory? J. Harris Proctor in Islam and International Relations (1965), the notion that Islam could be influential upon international affairs and should therefore be an independent subject of study was clearly invalid Buzan, Why is there no non-Western IR theory? Orthodox IR and Islamic IR religion must be taken into account in International Relations theorising without rejecting previous theories or disregarding research methods developed in the 20th Century

al siyasi al Islami (Islamic political order) Extra-rational agency, Umma, Assabiya, laws governing society are primarily normative as opposed to prescriptive Abdul Hamid Abu Sulayman opened the door for an exclusively Islamic concept of the international in, Towards an Islamic Theory of International Relations

Functions of Theory Theories disagree on what constitutes the state and its sovereignty Non-Westphalian Approach: Diminished value of the Nation-State, Two Concepts of The State and Sovereignty – 1) Umma, One indivisible community bound through a Assabiya, – 2) Inside/ Outside Dar al Harb (Realm of War, The Other) Dar al Islam (Realm of Islam)

Ontology (What you know) All theories accept Tawhid (oneness of God) Theories differ on methodology – Quran (Word of God dictated to Muhammad) – Sunna (Sayings and deeds of the Prophet) – Fiqh ( Islamic Juris-prudence 5 Sunni, 3 Shi’ite) Ijtihad (personal judgment)

Islamic IR Schools Classical (Traditional) Reformist (Non-Traditional) Revolutionary (Salafi/Jihadi)

Classical Approach and the 1 st Debate Islam’s formative period, Origins 7 th C to Conquest Related to Classical Hobbesian Realism Persistent existential struggle Literalist interpretation: Divine sources require no human intervention Defensive and Offensive Jihad (the lesser) Perpetual Dar al Harb/ Dar al Islam conflict

Reformists and the 2 nd Debate 19 th C Salafism (learning from the rightly guided caliphs) Jamal al Din al Afghani Emerged as a result of Islamic decline Return to the Salafs. Mediation between the rejectionists and the modernists Related to the Lockean tradition of cautious cooperation Can Islam support both universalism and trans- nationalism?

Revisions Revised Dar al Harb/ Dar al Islam: alternate inter-subjective worlds coexisting without one asserting its hegemony upon the other through a superior assabiya Dar al Ahd (realm of treaties) The Umma is a meta-physical concept, Boundaries less contraining Ijtihad Closing of the gates 10 th C Traditionalist judgment on matters without the consent of the ulema is heretical Reformist: It is necessary to content with the modern world

Salafi Jihadism, 3 rd Debate Theoretical paradigms affected by world events, WW1, end of the Caliphate 3 rd Debate Blends Classical Hyper-realism and the approach to Jihad with ijtihad Reformist use ijtihad to engage with modernity SJ use ijtihad as a tool to bypass the ulema Sayid Qutb, Hassan al-Banna, Maulana Maududi Qutb asserted that Muslims have lost their way and Islam has been altered to the point of only existing in the minds of the revolutionaries

Conflict, then, is not just a matter of survival but the only tool for achieving peace, as there can be no peace without a global Islamic political order Early Muslim Brotherhood

Assassination of Sadat, 4 th Debate Crackdown on Islamist groups and Islamic institutions marginalization, subjugation, radicalization Muslim Brotherhood disavow violent action More concentration on traditional politics and social services Exodus to Afghanistan, the Afghan Arabs Ayman al Zawahiri, Osama bin Laden, Abdullah Azzam

Politics of the Middle East Iranian Islamic Revolution 1979

Protest begin October 1977 Pahlavi fled to exile January 1979 Ayatollah Khomeini returned from exile April 1, 1979 Islamic Republic Declared

Causes Conservative, Liberal, Religious, Secular Increasing westernization and secularization Cultural pollution Overambitious economic reforms Economic decline following 1973 oil boom Oppressive extravagant regime SAVAK Underestimation of the Khomeinist movement

White Revolution Advertised as implementing Western reforms Aimed to strengthen the upper classes who supprted the Monarchy, Gain support of the peasantry Weaken middle class influence 1963national referendum: 5,598,711 for 4,115 against Land Reformd: 90% of sharecropeers become land owners Privatisation of Government industry Free Education, Extened Health Services, Welfare, Improve Literacy Rates, Women’s Suffrage, Housing Equality, Nationalisation for Forest Land,, Price Stabalisation

Effects Industrial growth Secondary Education 370,000 to 741,000 College Education 24,885 to 145,210 Literacy 26% to 42% Marriage age raised to 15, Women can vote, hold public office, serve as judges and lawyers The intelligentsia and the urban working class grew 4X in population Disaffected by the outlawing of political parties, associations, unions and independent newspapers Land Reform: large numbers of independent farmers and landless laborers disaffected by corruption. Most unable to buy enough land to sustain farming

SAVAK Sazeman-e Ettelat va Amniyat-e Keshvar, Organization of Intelligence and National Security) Established 1957 with CIA assistance had the power to censor the media, screen applicants for government jobs, use all means necessary including torture to hunt down dissidents Rebranded SAVAMA

The Build Up Pahlavi fanily 20 Billion in Oil wealth Influx of foreign skilled workers Failure of trickle down economics Increased gap between rich and poor 1977 Austerity measures to fight inflation Anti-profiteering campaign Death of Ali Shariati by SAVAK (Red Shi’ism)

Monarchs vs Ulema 1935 Pahlavi’s father outlawed Islamic dress and replaced sharia with Western law Ulema loss influence over education and family law Clerical institutions dependent on rents which land reform severely reduced Rise of Khoemeini Arrested 1963 sparking protests, 1964 exiled for 15 years

Ayatollah Ruhollah Mostafavi Moosavi Khomeini 24 September 1902 – 3 June 1989 Educated in Arak and Qom Lecturer at Qom and Najaf importance of religion to practical social and political issues of the day "virtual face of Islam in Western popular culture"

Revolutionary Ideology Jalal Al-e Ahmed, Gharbzadegi (Westoxification) velayat e faqih government should be run in accordance with traditional sharia, for this to happen a leading jurist must provide political "guardianship“ "more necessary even than prayer and fasting“ Quietist Shi’ism vs Activist Shi’ism Martyrdom "export of revolution does not mean interfering in other nation's affairs“ but "answering their questions about knowing God“ "Establishing the Islamic state world-wide belong to the great goals of the revolution."

January 1978 publication of Red and Black Imperialism. Protests in Qom Araba’een, Feb 18, March 29, May 10 Reforms calm protest: relaxed censorship, dismiss SAVAK officials, protestester treated leanently, elections promised Cinema Rex Fire 422 killed, Protest renewed Further concessions: Rastakhiz Party abolished, all parties legalizedm political prisoners released, increased freedom of expression, curtailed SAVAK's authority, closed down casinos and nightclubs, abolished the imperial calendar

Sept 4, Eid Protests Marshall Law Black Friday 8 Sept 1978, 89 Protesters killed Government ceases significant intervention Shah pressures Iraq to expel Khomeini Moves to France Shah "this revolution cannot but be supported by me, the king of Iran“ Military stands down

Protests Continue: Secularist and Leftist ignored Khomeini’s Islamist approach, believed him only a figurehead ‘The Plan’, civilian government, vacation, referendum 16 January, 1979 Shahpour Bakhtiar appointed PM, Shah flees to Egypt Bakhtiar seen as Shah puppet

Khomeini Returns Feb 1, Khomeini in Tehran 'I shall kick their teeth in. I appoint the government in support of this nation‘ "Decade of Fajr." Supreme Military Council "neutral” Feb 11, Victory Day

Conclusion 1983, Revolution consolidated 1978 – 79, 2700 protesters killed 1981 – 85, 8000 executed by revolutionary courts 1979 Hostage crisis End of relations with US Neither East nor West Middle East Cold War Iran, Syria, Hezbollah vs Egypt, Jordan, Gulf States

Politics of the Middle East The Global Jihad

Join The Caravan Muhammad abd al-Salam Faraj, Jamaat al-Jihad Abdullah Azzam, Godfather of Jihad Afghan Arabs organiser Maktab al-Khidamat “Jihad and the rifle alone. No conferences, no dialogue, no negotiations”

Causation Existing explanations focus either on very specific issues of the modern era or timeless metanarratives Poverty Authoritarian regimes US (Western) foreign policy The Jewish state Globalisation and modernity Culture and values Clash of Civilisations

The Rise and Fall of Political Islam 1924 End of the Caliphate Hassan al Banna, Sayid Qutb Failure of Arab Nationalism, the absence of a unification narrative Grand Mosque Seizure, Luxor The Muslim Brotherhood, ‘God is our objective, the Quran is our constitution, the Prophet is our leader, struggle is our way, and death for the sake of Allah is the highest of our aspirations.’ Quietening of the Islamists “Islamist movements have been in part secularized by the political process, where political logic has trumped religious logic” Hijra

Salafi Jihadism Ideology Fundamentalist/ de- contextualised Salafism, Hijra, jihad, jayhilliya, Taymiyya, Afghani, Maududi, Qutb, Azzam, Faraj, Salafism, jihad, Hijra and jahiliya Ayman al Zawahiri Knights Under the Prophets Banner Qutb The New Jahiliyya ‘everything around us is jahiliya, people’s perceptions and beliefs, habits and customs, the sources of their culture, arts, literature and their laws and legislations. Much of what we think of as Islamic culture, Islamic sources or Islamic philosophy, is in fact jahiliya.’

Ijtihad Sura 2 verse 106 ‘None of our revelations do we abrogate or cause to be forgotten. But we substitute something better or similar. Don’t you know that Allah has power over all things.’ Sura 16 verse 101 ‘When we substitute one revelation for another and Allah knows best what he reveals in stages. They say you are but a forger, but most of them do not understand.’

Quran 56: (They will be) on Thrones encrusted (with gold and precious stones), Reclining on them, facing each other. Round about them will (serve) youths of perpetual (freshness), With goblets, (shining) beakers, and cups (filled) out of clear-flowing fountains No after-ache will they receive therefrom, nor will they suffer intoxication: And with fruits, any that they may select And the flesh of fowls, any that they may desire. And (there will be) Companions with beautiful, big, and lustrous eyes, Like unto Pearls well-guarded. A Reward for the deeds of their past (life). Not frivolity will they hear therein, nor any taint of ill,- Only the saying, "Peace! Peace".

Al Qaeda (The Base) Founded 1988 Computer Database containing contacts of Afghan fighters Mujahedeen Myth 1992 Yemen, 1995 Riyadh, 1998 Kenya and Tanzania, 2001 US 1998 Fatwa 2001 merger with Egyptian Islamic Jihad forming "Qaeda al-Jihad“ Bin Laden the organiser Zawahiri the thinker

The Near and Far Enemy Debate Debate of the jihadist center of gravity Near enemy (Arab regimes) Far Enemy (hegemonic powers) Structure vs Agent The 20 year plan – the Awakening ( ) Provoke a war – Opening Eyes (2004 – 2007) Become a global brand and focus on Iraq – ( ) Focus on Israel, Syria, Turkey – ( ) Challenge US asymmetrically

Glocalization Franchising, The al Qaeda brand Affiliates, Allies and Freelance Jihadists Wedding local grievances to the global effort “Think globally, act locally” – Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula – Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb – Al Qaeda in Iraq (Now ISIS) – Ansar al Sharia – Al Shabaab

Unity, Legitimacy, Hegemony The termination of the caliphate followed by the failure of pan-Islamism, pan-Arabism and political Islam leaves a narrative void. Post WWII consolidation of international system and norms Hegemonic willingness to maintain the existing order

Waning Influence

Increased isolation and stagnation of al Qaeda Central (AQC) post 9-11 Death of bin Laden Soft Power strategies New Generation Jihadists Recruitment flow from Europe Rise of ISIS

Down but not out Jihadist civil war Islamic State vs AQC Syrian conflict may determine the outcome

Politics of the Middle East The War on Terror

September 11, Deaths 10 Billion infrastructure damage Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq 2001 Letter to America support of Israel, attacks in Somalia, atrocities in Chechnya, authoritarian regimes in the Middle East, oppression in Kashmir The presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia sanctions against Iraq

Hijackers, 15 Saudi, 2 Emiratis, 1 Jordan, 1 Egypt Flight 11 and 175 Boston to La hit WTC Flight 77 DC to LA hit Pentagon Flight 93 Newark to SF crashed in Shanksville US airspace closed NATO take up air border security patrols “The Pet Goat”

The Hamburg Cell Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Architect of 9-11 plan 1996 Formed 1998 by University Students in Hamburg Germany Mohamed Atta, Marwan al-Shehhi Ramzi bin al-Shibh Chance meeting with al Qaeda agent Training in Afghanistan, chosen for mission Enroll in flight training schools in US The 20 th hijacker

Ziad Jarrah Beirut Wealthy, secular background Aysel Şengün "I did what I was supposed to do" and "You ought to be very proud, because it is an honor and you will see the result and everybody will be happy"

International Reaction Attacks denounced Ahmed Yassin, the spiritual leader of Hamas, Yusuf al- Qaradawi, Taliban Candlelight vigils in Iran and Pakistan

Domestic Reaction Mass of volunteers travel to NY “American Muslims utterly condemn the vicious and cowardly acts of terrorism against innocent civilians.” Falwell, "pagans, abortionists, feminists, the gays and the lesbians. I point the finger in their face and say 'you helped this happen” Increase in Hate Crimes Sheikh Temple in Wisconsin burned

Freedom or Security Department of Homeland Security Patriot Act Expanded law enforcement powers related to search and seizure, Increased power of financial regulation, Increased border security and immigration authority The Terrorism Narrative and US foreign relations Politicalisation of Terrorism Who is a terrorist?

Afghanistan US demand Taliban give up UBL NATO and allied invasion October 2001 Civilian deaths 19,013 Allied 14,859 Taliban 20,000 – 35,000 No significant peace established Bilateral Security Agreement US combat troops withdraw 2014, all US personnel withdraw 2016

Failed Plots The 2001 shoe bomb plot Library Tower in LA, 2003 Brooklyn Bridge in New York City 2004 Financial buildings plot, IMF, World Bankm NYSE 2004 Columbus Shopping Mall Bombing 2006 Sears Tower 2007 Fort Dix attack 2007 JFK airport New York Subway Bombing Plot 2010 Times Square car bombing attempt

Successful Plots 2002 Bali 2003 Casablanca 2003 Istanbul 2004 Madrid train bombings London bombings 2007 Algiers 2007 Glasgow International Airport 2009 Fort Hood, United States 2012 Toulouse and Montauban shootings in France Benghazi Libya

Capture of Osama bin Laden Abbottabad Pakistan 1.3 Kilometers from Pakistan Military Academy Abu Ahmed al-Kuwaiti, 2 May 2011 SEAL Team 6, Stealth helicopters 38 minutes on the ground Overseas Contingency