1 Principles of Environmental Science Inquiry and Applications Third Edition Cunningham Chapter 14 Lecture Outlines* *See PowerPoint Image Slides for all figures and tables pre-inserted into PowerPoint without notes. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

2 Sustainability and Human Development Chapter 14

3 Outline: Sustainability and Resources  Classical Economics  Neo-Classical Economics  Ecological Economics Resource Accounting Trade and Development Urban Development Urban Problems in Developing Countries Smart Growth

4 SUSTAINABILITY AND RESOURCES Sustainability is a critical theme of environmental science.  Resources should be used in ways that do not diminish them. Sustainable Development  Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. - Must be available to all to be enduring.

5 Resources in Classical Economics Resources exist in fixed amounts.  As populations grow, scarcity of these resources reduces quality of life, increases competition, and eventually causes populations to fall again. In a free market, supply and demand should come into market equilibrium.  Marginal Costs - Cost of producing one more unit of a product or service.  Price Elasticity - Raising price does not necessarily reduce demand.

6 Neoclassical Economics Developed in nineteenth century. Expanded idea of resources to include labor, knowledge, and capital.  Capital - Any form of wealth that contributes to the production of more wealth.  3. Natural capital: capital created by natural earth processes. Growth is seen as a necessity. Natural resources viewed as merely factors of production rather than critical supplies of materials, services, and waste sinks.

Similar to natural resource economics 1. BUT neoclassical considers ecological processes as factors OUTSIDE the economic system. 2. Ecological processes: clean air & water, energy, climate regulated, nutrient cycled; processes by nature (included as part of NATURAL RESOURCE ECONOMICS) 7

8 Neoclassical Economics

9 Ecological Economics Developed in recent decades, and applies ecological ideas of system functions and recycling to the definition of resources. Acknowledges dependence on essential life- support services provided by nature. Regards some aspects of nature as irreplaceable and essential. Principle concern is equitable distribution of resources and rights.

10 Ecological Economics

4. Ecological Economics Efficiency in nature, importance of ecosystem function for the continuation of our economy and culture. ***This is taught through this course. 5. Ecological economics is different in recognizing human economy (management of resources) as one part of a dynamic world system. 11

12 Resource Types Resource - Anything with potential use in creating wealth or giving satisfaction.  Nonrenewable resources - Materials present in fixed amounts in the environment.  Renewable resources - Materials that can be replenished or replaced,6. UNLESS we destroy them!

13 Scarcity and Limits to Growth Many economists content human ingenuity and enterprise often allow us to respond to scarcity in ways that postpone or alleviate dire effects of resources.  Dependent on Limits To Growth

14 Communal Property Garret Hardin – “Tragedy of the Commons”:  This WILL BE ON SEVERAL TESTS!!  Argued commonly held resources are inevitably degraded because self-interests of individuals tend to outweigh public interests. - Theorized each individual will attempt to maximize personal gain.  Hardin was describing open access system with no rules to manage resource use.

15 Features of a “Commons” Communal Resource Management Systems Community members have lived on resource. Resource has clearly defined resource. Group size is known and enforced. Resource is relatively scarce and variable. Local, collective management strategies. Resource and use are actively monitored. Effective conflict resolution mechanisms. Incentives encourage rules compliance.

16 NATURAL RESOURCE ACCOUNTING Cost-Benefit Analysis  Assigns values to resources and social and environmental effects of an undertaking. - Finds optimal efficiency where marginal cost of pollution control equals the marginal benefit.  Criticisms include lack of standards, inadequate attention to alternatives, and monetary values for intangible costs and benefits.

7. Intangible resource Example: satisfaction *This would be as simple as having a full belly of food, or as complex as loving the new house you just bought. 17

18 Accounting for Nonmonetary Resources Assigning value to ecological services. Using alternative measures of wealth and development.  Accounting for resource depletion or ecosystem damage.  Human Development Index

19 Internal vs. External Costs Internal Costs - Expenses borne by those using a resource. 8. Literally the price we pay External Costs - Expenses borne by someone other than those using a resource. 9. External costs affect others “downstream”, like when we degrade air or water quality.  Internalizing Costs - Ensuring those that reap the benefit of resource use also bear all external costs.

20 TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT According to economic theory and comparative advantage, each place has goods or services it can supply in better quality, or at better prices, than its neighbors.  Keeps less-developed countries in a perpetual role of resource suppliers to more-developed countries.

21 International Trade Comparative Advantage Theory  Each place has some good or service it can sell cheaper, or better than others can. - International trade allows buyers the advantage of the best or cheapest products from around the world.  One problem is the internalization of costs on a grand scale.  Many claim international banking system set up by and for wealthy countries.

22 GREEN BUSINESS During first Industrial Revolution, raw materials were seen as inexhaustible.  Recently many businesses have realized this theory is flawed. - Operating in a socially responsible manner consistent with principles of sustainable development can be good for business.10. Improves companies image & saves $.

23 Jobs and the Environment For years, business leaders portrayed environmental protection and jobs as mutually exclusive.  Ecological economists found only 0.1 % of all large-scale layoffs in the U.S. in recent years were due to governmental regulations. - Recycling requires more labor than using virgin materials. 11. Has allowed the EPA to increase our # of jobs

24 URBAN DEVELOPMENT Vast majority of humanity has always lived in rural areas where natural resource-based occupations provided support.  Since beginning of Industrial Revolution cites have grown rapidly in size and power.

25 URBAN DEVELOPMENT CONT’D Urbanization - Increasing concentration of population in cites and transformation of land use and society to metropolitan patterns of organization.  Nearly half world population now lives in urban areas. - A megacity is an urban area with more than 10 million inhabitants.

26 Megacities

27 World Urbanization 12. Occurred quickly after the industrial revolution In 1850, only 2% of world pop lived in cities.  By 2002, 47% of world population lived in urban areas. - Only Africa and South Asia remain predominantly rural.  Expected that 90% of population growth over the next 25 years will occur in less- developed countries.

28 Urban and Rural Growth

29 Causes of Urban Growth Immigration to cities can be caused by both push factors that force people out of the country, and by pull factors that draw them into the city. Natural increase (more births than deaths) fueled by improved food supplies, better sanitation, and advances in medical care.

30 Immigration Push Factors Overpopulation Economics Politics Racial or Religious Conflicts Land Tenure Changes in Agriculture  Large Monoculture Farms 13. Resulting in a PUSH to cities due to unemployment in farming communities.

31 Immigration Pull Factors Excitement and Vitality Jobs Housing Entertainment Social Mobility and Power Specialization of Professions

32 Government Policies Government policies often favor urban over rural areas in push and pull factors.  Developing countries often spend majority of budgets on improving urban areas. - Major cities gain a monopoly on new jobs, education, and general opportunities. 14. Seen as a PULL to live in cities as TV & media make urban life appear luxurious & accessible.

33 URBAN PROBLEMS Developing World  Many problems arise from unplanned and uncontrollable growth. - Lack of Infrastructure - Adequate Food - Housing - Jobs - Basic Residential Service

34 Air and Water Pollution Dense traffic, smoky factories, and use of wood or coal fires often create a tremendous amount of air pollution in Third World cities.  Few cities can afford to build modern waste treatment systems. - Worldwide, access to good water is a major problem due to lack of waste treatment

35 Housing UN estimates 1 billion people live in crowded, unsanitary slums of the central cities and shantytowns.  Quickly fill unoccupied edges of town, where squatters can build shelters close to the city. - House nearly half of the 20 million people in Mexico City.

36 Current World Problems Developed World  Rapid growth of cities that accompanied industrialization has mostly slowed or reversed. - Many of the environmental problems have been reduced.  Many of major polluters have moved to developing countries.  16. Slums: legal, but inadequate living conditions.

37 Developed World  17. Urban centers: often poor, undereducated, minorities, & other less powerful groups.  Urban Sprawl - In most American metropolitan areas, the bulk of new housing is in large, tract developments that leapfrog beyond city edges in search of inexpensive land.  Consumes about 200,000 ha of U.S. agricultural land annually.  Planning authority is often divided among many small local jurisdictions.

38 Urban Sprawl Because many Americans live far from work, they consider a private automobile essential. Average U.S. driver spends 443 hours per year behind a steering wheel.In some metropolitan areas, it is estimated one-third of all land is devoted to automobile infrastructure. 18.An emphasis on the auto is reflected by streets, garages, & driveways. Traffic congestion costs U.S. $78 billion annually in wasted fuel and time.

39 Smart Growth Smart Growth makes effective use of land resources and existing infrastructure by encouraging in-fill development.  Attempts to provide transportation options.  19. Such as mass transport. This will have a positive impact. - Goal is not to block growth, but to channel it to areas where it can be sustained over the long term.  Protects environmental quality.

40 Urban Sustainability Limit city size, or organize into modules of 30,000 to 50,000 people. Maintain greenbelts in and around cities. Determine in advance where development will take place. Locate everyday services more conveniently. Encourage walking and low-speed vehicles. Promote more diverse, flexible housing as an alternative to conventional housing.

41 Urban Sustainability Cont’d Make cities more self-sustainable by growing food locally, recycling wastes and water, etc. Invite public participation in decision-making. Plan cluster housing, or open-space zoning, which preserves at least half of a subdivision as natural areas, or other forms of open space.

42 Designing For Open Space 20. “New towns” incorporate open space & the convenience of urban living. Plan cluster housing or open-space zoning, which preserves at least half of a subdivision as natural areas, farmland, or other forms of open space.  By carefully clustering houses on smaller lots, conservation subdivisions can provide the same number of buildable lots as a conventional subdivision and still preserve 50 to 70% of land as open space.

43 Designing For Open Space

44 Sustainable Development in the Third World Many planners argue social justice and sustainable economic development are answers to urban problems.  Another important measure of progress may be institution of social welfare providing care to the sick and elderly. Others argue the best hope for developing countries may be to “delink” from established international economic systems and develop self-sustainability.

Cities Are distinguished by their differentiated or specialized jobs or functions.

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