You Asked for it….. Biology REVIEW

biomolecules Building Block Uses Examples Test Carbohydrate Simple sugars Ready source of energy Glucose Glycogen Cellulose Starch STARCH turns purple in iodine SUGARS react with Benedict’s Solution Protein Amino acids Transport Speed up reactions Immunity Cell communication Enzymes (-ase) Hemoglobin Antibodies Protein hormones (insulin) Reacts with Biuret Solution Lipid Fatty Acids Back up energy source In membrane Fats, oils Leaves oily spot on brown paper bag Nucleic Acid Nucleotide Store and transmit genetic info DNA, RNA DNA stains (methylene blue)

CELLS EUKARYOTIC PROKARYOTIC Eukaryotic cells have their DNA surrounded by a membrane.  (They have a nucleus).  Two examples shown are plant cells and animal cells, but fungi and protists are also eukaryotic Notice, plants have chloroplasts (for photosynthesis) and cell walls made of cellulose. Animal cells don't have these parts.  Also, plant cells have a larger vacuole for storage.  Both plants and animals have mitochondria to make ATP. All eukaryotic cells have ribosomes to make protein These cells are more complex than prokaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells have DNA and ribosomes, but they have no internal membranes! (They don't have a nucleus) They have ribosomes to make proteins These are the simplest cells Examples are bacteria, like those that cause strep throat.

The plasma membrane surrounds EVERY cell. CELL MEMBRANE The plasma membrane surrounds EVERY cell. It is made of lipid and protein It controls what goes in and out of a cell. Associated with HOMEOSTASIS

Diffusion Osmosis Active Transport CELL TRANSPORT Movement from high to low concentration No energy required Osmosis Movement of water from high to low WATER concentration across a membrane Active Transport Movement from LOW concentration to HIGH concentration USES ATP

Enzymes are specific for reactions bind to substrate at active site speed up reactions are not changed in the reaction are made of PROTEIN are reusable

Photosynthesis and Respiration Converts sunlight to chemical energy Converts energy in food (glucose) to ATP Cellular Respiration Takes place in mitochondrion Releases the energy stored in glucose AKA aerobic respiration (NEEDS oxygen)

AEROBIC vs AnAEROBIC RESPIRATION Requires oxygen Makes A LOT of ATP Produces carbon dioxide and water Happens in mitochondrion Does not use oxygen Makes only 2 ATP Small amount of ATP Also called fermentation YEASTS make ethyl alcohol BACTERIA and MUSCLE CELLS (w/o O2) make LACTIC ACID Happens in cytoplasm (cytosol)

Atp cYCLE CLICK THE ICON FOR SOUND

Asexual vs Sexual Reproduction Asexual Reproduction Adds genetic variation Involves meiosis and fertilization TWO parents involved Diploid and haploid cells Creates identical copies (clones) Only involves MITOSIS ONE parent involved Common in bacteria and unicellular protists

Mitosis and Meiosis One division Two divisions 2n  2n 2n  n (same number of chromosomes) Results in 2 genetically identical cells Two divisions 2n  n Half the number of chromosomes Results in 4 DIFFERENT haploid cells Forms gametes (egg and sperm)

DNA DNA is a polymer of nucleotides. A nucleotide is made up of three parts: a sugar, a phosphate and one of four bases In DNA, the bases are A, T, C, and G DNA’s shape is a double helix The two strands are held together by HYDROGEN bonds A binds to T C binds with G

DNA Replication Process of DNA copying itself Steps DNA Unzips (Hydrogen bonds break) Each side acts as a template New DNA nucleotides are added according to base-pairing rules Two new molecules of DNA result – each with one old and one new strand. Happens in INTERPHASE (before mitosis or meiosis)

DNA  mRNA  protein Protein Synthesis Made of amino acids Remember, genes are made of DNA and are in the nucleus Genes (DNA) contain the instruction for making  a protein In transcription, DNA is used to make mRNA in the nucleus mRNA then leaves the nucleus and goes to the ribosome In translation, tRNA then brings amino acids in the proper order to make the protein on the ribosome. DNA  mRNA  protein Made of amino acids

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS DNA DNA is in nucleus GENES (made of DNA) hold code for protein RNA mRNA is made in nucleus TRANSCRIPTION Remember base pairing rules PROTEIN mRNA goes to ribosome 3 bases on mRNA is a codon – each codon codes for one amino acid tRNA brings the right amino acid to the mRNA Anticodon on tRNA base pairs with codon on mRNA

Can you IDENTIFY the parts? DNA mRNA Nucleus Cytoplasm Ribosome Codon Anticodon tRNA Amino acid Protein (polypeptide)

READING THE CODON CHART Be sure to use mRNA You won’t have to memorize this! What amino acid is coded for by the DNA ATA GAG First convert DNA to mRNA ATA GAG UAU CUC UAU = tyr CUC = Leu

Genetics We have two genes for each trait – this is our GENOTYPE One gene came from mom, one from dad If the genes are alike, the individual is homozygous (RR, rr) If the genes are different , they are heterozygous (Rr) Some genes are dominant and others are recessive We only show a recessive trait if we have no dominant gene RR and Rr would “look” dominant rr would look recessive This diagram shows the cross between 2 heterozygous purple flowers Cross is: Bb x Bb Notice that 75% are purple and 25% white

Sex Linkage Females are XX Males are XY Sex-linked traits are on X chromosome Trait is more common in MALES Examples are colorblindness and hemophilia (blood fails to clot) Males give X chromosomes to their daughters and Y’s to their sons Moms give X’s to both daughters and sons

CODOMINANCE – BLOOD TYPE Four blood types A, B, AB, O Three different alleles: A, B or neither A = AA or AO B = BB or BO AB = AB O = OO Agglutinogen = protein

PEDIGREES 4 = Ee (parent 2 had to give an e) Tracing traits through generations Males are squares Females are circles Horizontal line means married Vertical line means children Filled in circle means the individual HAS the condition Can you identify the genotypes of individuals 4, 7, 12? 4 = Ee (parent 2 had to give an e) 7 = Ee (child is ee, so they had to have one e) 12 = ee (affected with recessive condition)

KARYOTYPE XY = male In humans, 22 pair of autosomes A chart showing arrangement of chromosomes In humans, 22 pair of autosomes 1 pair of sex chromosomes XX = female XY = male Extra chromosomes a result of non-disjunction Chromosome pairs fail to separate in meiosis One example is DOWN SYNDROME (extra 21) Another example is KLINEFELTERS (XXY) 3 21’s = Down Syndrome

GENETIC TECHNOLOGY Use gel electrophoresis to compare DNA fragments DNA FINGERPRINTING TRANSGENIC organisms Use gel electrophoresis to compare DNA fragments IF DNA matches, it’s from the same individual Organisms that have 2 different kinds of DNA Gene cloning Uses bacteria to make human proteins like insulin Evidence points to suspect 2

EVOLUTION – change over time EVIDENCE Natural Selection Fossil evidence Fossils found in sedimentary rock Lower level fossils are older and more PRIMITIVE We can compare fossils to modern organisms Similar structure suggests common ancestor Biochemical evidence DNA and protein similarities suggest common ancestor Credited to Charles Darwin Organisms in populations have variations that can be passed from generation to generation More organisms born that environment can support Organisms compete for resources Those organisms with favorable variations have more babies and the population evolves

Which type of plant is most closely related to flowering plants? Cladograms Determining evolutionary relationships Which type of plant is most closely related to flowering plants? CONIFERS

History of classification systems Aristotle – Plants and Animals Linneaus – developed BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE TWO KINGDOMS: plants and animals THREE kingdoms: plant, animal, Protist FIVE kingdoms: plant, animal, Protist, fungi, Moneran

CLASSIFICATION K Kingdom P Phylum C Class O Order F Family G Genus S Species Scientific name is genus and species name. Organisms in same genus are closely related

FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION Moneran Bacteria Prokaryotic No nucleus Have cell wall Unicellular Can be heterotrophic or autotrophic Protist Protozoans, algae Eukaryotic Have nucleus Some have cell wall Mainly unicellular Fungi Mushroom, yeast Mainly multicellular heterotrophic Plant Moss, fern, trees, flowers All multicellular autotrophic Animal Sponge, annelids, amphibians, birds, mammals No cell wall

Dichotomous key Always begin with #1 Follow directions using choices given What shape is “Gina”? Equilateral triangle

Types of Plants Bryophytes Non-vascular No xylem or phloem Examples are mosses They are small Have to be near water No pollen, seeds, flowers, or fruits Gymnosperms Vascular Xylem to move water Phloem to move food Examples are conifers Have pollen (sperm) Have seeds on cones No fruits or flowers Angiosperms Examples are flowering plants like oak trees, corn, and roses Have seeds in fruits Have flowers

PLANT ADAPTATIONS Flowers and Fruits Root, stem, Leaf Flowers have bright petals to attract pollinators Pollen (Sperm) can be transferred by animals When egg joins with pollen, a seed is formed in the ovary The ovary becomes the fruit Fruit surrounds and protects seed Fruit also helps get baby plants in seeds away from parent plant Roots are adapted to absorb water with root hairs Leaves are adapted for photosynthesis by being flat and green Stems move water with xylem

TYPES OF ANIMALS Annelids Segmented worms No backbone “breathe” through skin Closed circulatory system External fertilization External development Insects No backbome Three body segments Six legs Wings Open circulatory system Females may store sperm metamorphosis Amphibians Have backbone Moist skin Gills when young, lungs when adult Three chambered heart Cold-blooded Metamorphosils Jelly like egg Mammals Backbone Hair Milk glands Lungs Four chambered heart Warm-blooded Internal fertilization Internal development Amniote egg

Disease causing viruses VIRUS STRUCTURE Viral reproduction A virus is not made of cells It is nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) surrounded by protein coat (Capsid) Virus can’t reproduce unless it is inside a living cell The virus uses the cells enzymes and ribosomes to make DNA and protein New viruses either bud off of the cell or the cell bursts, releasing lots of viruses

BACTERIA vs VIRUSES Made of cells Can be killed by antibiotics Examples of disease caused by bacteria is strep throat Not made of cells MUCH SMALLER THAN CELLS Can’t be killed by antibiotics Example of diseases caused by viruses are AIDS (HIV), Smallpox, Influenza

Internal and external factors in disease Malaria Mosquitoes transmit malaria Individuals who have the sickle cell trait (heterozygous) aren’t as affected as homozygous individuals PKU Individuals who have PKU can’t break down phenylalanine If it builds up it can cause mental retardation Keep individuals with PKU on a diet, they don’t have brain damage Lung Cancer Lung cancer is uncontrolled growth of cells in the lungs Individuals who smoke are more likely to get lung cancer Diabetes Diabetes results from when the pancreas fails to make enough insulin Individuals who are overweight and who don’t exercise seem to be more affected Skin Cancer Light skinned people don’t have the natural melanin protection of darker skinned people Overexposure to sunlight can trigger the changes that lead to skin cancer

IMMUNITY B-cells White blood cell Make antibodies T- helper cells Help coordinate immune response T-killer cells Kill virus infected cell

PASSIVE vs. ACTIVE immunity Passive immunity Person DOES make antibodies AND memory cells Provides long term immunity Natural: you have disease Artificial – you get a VACCINATION Person does NOT make memory cells or antibodies Antibodies only are transferred Doesn’t provide long- term protection Natural: from breastfeeding Artificial: Rabies “shot”

Behavioral Adaptations Behavior is any thing an animal DOES. Animal behaviors also help animals survive and/or reproduce.

Innate Behavior Innate behavior is also called inborn behavior. It is programmed in DNA Innate behaviors include reflexes and instincts Examples human suckling. spiders spinning webs Migration: birds flying south for the winter Hibernation – dormant when cold Estivation – dormant when hot Innate Behavior

Learned Behavior Trial and Error Learning by trying Habituation Imprinting Learning who your Mother is Lorenz geese Conditioning Pairing stimuli Pavlov’s Dogs Habituation Learning to ignore Dog no longer sees human as threat Trial and Error Learning by trying

Communication Courtship Territorial Social behavior Can be with words, signals or chemicals (pheromones) Courtship Behavior to get a mate Dances, songs Territorial Fighting fish

ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS Includes abiotic and biotic factors Biomes are examples Community Includes all the LIVING things Population All of one species in one area Can reproduce with each other

Food CHAINS Energy is “lost” as you mover “up” the food chain Secondary Consumer (bird) Primary Consumer (snail) Producer (grass) Original source of energy for most chains is the sun 1st trophic level is producer 2nd trophic level is primary consumer 2rd trophic level is secondary consumer Decomposer not shown on chain, but they recycle nutrients Energy is “lost” as you mover “up” the food chain

SYMBIOSIS Mutualism Parasitism Commensalism n mutualism, BOTH organisms BENEFIT this is a + / + relationship The picture shows E. coli, a type of bacteria that live in your intestine.  The bacteria get a place to live; we get the vitamin K they make.  This is good for both. Parasitism In parasitism, the PARASITE BENEFITS by getting food and shelter from the HOST This is a + / - relationship In the example shown, the TICK is the parasite and feeds off of the blood of the human HOST.  This is good for the tick, but bad for the human. Commensalism In commensalism, one organism BENEFITS while the other is NOT AFFECTED This is a  +/ 0 relationship The picture above shows orchids living in trees.  This is good for the orchid, because it allows the orchid to get sunlight. It doesn't affect the tree, because the orchid doesn't help or hurt it.

Predation Predator EATS Prey The populations cycle Predator has lower curve There can’t be more predators than prey

Population GROWTH EXPONENTIAL GROWTH Logistic growth J-curve Occurs when unlimited resources are available S-curve Occurs because resources are limited Carrying capacity reached

HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH Overpopulation of humans leads to Destruction of habitats (pollution and/or destroying) Loss of biodiversity Introduced species Outcompete native species

Carbon CYCLE Greenhouse Effect Cycling of carbon and oxygen Three main processes Photosynthesis – plants use carbon dioxide; produce oxygen Respiration – uses oxygen, produces carbon dioxide (both plants and animals) Combustion – burning – releases more carbon dioxide Greenhouse Effect Carbon dioxide traps heat in the atmosphere, making life possible Increased carbon dioxide can make temperatures rise more Human activities can lead to GLOBAL WARMING

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