Supporting language development in ethnic minority language communities Seminar on Multilingual Education Kabul, March 2010 Dennis Malone (mostly stolen from Susan Malone)

Some facts and figures about languages in the 21 st Century…

6000 Approximate number of languages spoken in the world today 50% Percentage of languages that can be reasonably classified as “dying” (i.e., children are no longer learning the language) 40% Percentage of languages that can be reasonably classified as “endangered” (i.e., if no action is taken, the language is likely to die) 10% Percentage of languages that can be reasonably classified as “safe” (i.e., have 100,000 or more speakers, including children, and have political support and influence). 90% Estimated percentage of languages that face “death” during the 21 st Century, if nothing is done. 10%, 5% Approximate percentage of the world’s endangered mammals and birds, respectively. Krauss, Michael. (1992). The world’s languages in crisis. Language 68(1), 4-10

Perspectives on multilingualism

Language as a problem Multiple languages make mass education difficult. Multiple languages are a threat to national unity and economic development. Government recognizes and supports only one or two languages.

Language as a resource Language diversity fosters creativity and the exchange of ideas. Languages (majority and minority) are a national treasure, part of the nation’s cultural heritage. Government appreciates and supports multiple languages and cultures.

Language as a right People should not face discrimination because of their language and culture. They have the right to maintain their ethnolinguistic identity (including language). They have the right to use their language in their community activities (including education). Government protects and supports multiple languages and culture.

Definition of terms

Language spread The number of speakers of a language increases geographically and numerically. There is an increase in the number of domains (home, schools, workplace, markets, government) in which the language is used by the speakers of other languages.

Language maintenance The language community takes action to maintain 1) the numbers of speakers (especially among the children), 2) the domains of use and 3) the proficiency of its speakers.

Language shift There is a decrease in 1) the number of speakers of a language, 2) the domains in which the language is used and 3) the speakers’ level of proficiency in the language. The language is being replaced by a more dominant language in the community.

Language death Children no longer learn the language; it is spoken fluently by only a few elderly people; and it is neither the ethnic community’s primary means of communication nor the symbol of its identity. (This is the end stage of language shift.)

Stages in the process of language loss Healthy monolingualism Stable bilingualism Unstable bilingualism Language death

Language planning terms

Status Planning Involves raising the status of the language and promoting its use through supportive policies, by public awareness campaigns, and by recognition of its role in the nation.

Corpus Planning Involves developing the language by modernizing its vocabulary, standardizing the grammar, orthography and spelling and developing literature. The following terms are often used in discussions of ‘corpus planning’…

Graphization: developing a written form for the language Dari sample text

Standardization: establishing norms or standards for the written form of the language

Modernization : adapting and/or creating vocabulary so the language can be used in new or expanded domains

Literature production: establishing and supporting the development of literature that is relevant to the education and reading interests of the language community.

Acquisition Planning involves creating the conditions for language spread by increasing the number of users of the language and the number of domains (economic, social, cultural, political) in which it is used.

Reversing language shift… 8 stages in reversing the shift of a language from being weak to being strong. Fishman, Joshua Reversing language shift. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters

Strong Side Stage 1 The language is used at upper govern- ment level.

Strong Side Stage 2Stage 1 The language is used in lower govern- ment levels and local mass media. The language is used at upper govern- ment level.

Stage 3Stage 2Stage 1 The language is used in the work- places of the larger society. The language is used in lower govern- ment levels and local mass media. The language is used at upper govern- ment level. Strong Side

Stage 4Stage 3Stage 2Stage 1 The language is used in formal educa- tion, along with the official language. The language is used in the work- places of the larger society. The language is used in lower govern- ment levels and local mass media. The language is used at upper govern- ment level. Strong Side

Stage 5 Stage 4Stage 3Stage 2Stage 1 Language and culture socializa-tion involves extensive literacy; usually including use of the language in private schooling. The language is used in formal educa- tion, along with the official language. The language is used in the work- places of the larger society. The language is used in lower govern- ment levels and local mass media. The language is used at upper govern- ment level. Weak SideStrong Side

Stage 6Stage 5 Stage 4Stage 3Stage 2Stage 1 Children socialized into the language and culture by parents and others in the com- munity Language and culture learning involves extensive literacy; usually including use of the language in schooling. The language is used in formal educa- tion, along with the official language. The language is used in the work- places of the larger society. The language is used in lower govern- ment levels and local media. The language is used at upper govern- ment level and in mass media Weak SideStrong Side

Stage 7Stage 6Stage 5 Stage 4Stage 3Stage 2Stage 1 Older people use the language enthusias- tically but children are not learning it. Children are socialized into the language and culture by parents and others in the com- munity Language and culture socializa-tion involves extensive literacy; usually including use of the language in schooling. The language is used in formal educa- tion, along with the official language. The language is used in the work- places of the larger society. The language is used in lower govern- ment levels and local mass media. The language is used at upper govern- ment level. Weak Side Strong Side

Stage 8 Stage 7Stage 6Stage 5 Stage 4Stage 3Stage 2Stage 1 So few fluent speakers that the commu- nity needs to re- establish language norms (may require linguistic experts) Older people use the language enthusias- tically but children are not learning it. Language and culture socializa- tion takes place in home and commu-nity Language and culture socialization involves extensive literacy; usually including use of the language in schooling. The language is used in formal educa- tion, along with the official language. The language is used in the work- places of the larger society. The language is used in lower govern- ment levels and local mass media. The language is used at upper govern- ment level. Weak SideStrong Side Adapted from Fishman, Joshua (1991). Reversing Language Shift. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Questions for Discussion : 1. At what stage or stages do you feel your own ethnic language is at? 2. What kind of actions are required for maintaining and developing the languages of Afghanistan? 3. Who are the people who need to be involved in the decision-making and planning?