Chapter 5: Gender and Gender Roles Human Sexuality Chapter 5: Gender and Gender Roles

Gender: Topic Areas Impact of gender on human development Gender and sexual development Biological and cultural perspectives Sexual orientation Gender stereotypes and health Gender socialization Gender variance and gender identity Biological differences: brain, hormones, anatomy

Sex Sex: biologically male or female, based on chromosomes and anatomy Genetics: XX or XY Anatomical: genitals/bodily differences

Gender Gender: a social construct; related to notions of masculinity and femininity Gender Identity: the gender one believes oneself to be

Gender Gender roles: attitudes, behaviors, rights and responsibilities assigned to us based on our sex Varies by culture

Gender Gender-role stereotypes: rigidly held, oversimplified beliefs about sex appropriate behavior.

Gender Gender-role attitudes: our personal perspectives/beliefs about sex appropriate behavior Gender-role behaviors: activities/behaviors we engage in as influenced by our sex/gender

Gender Gender presentation: how our sex/gender is perceived by others Based on our physical appearance, movements, habits, personality, etc. Baby X study

Gender: Congruence and Incongruence Biological, cultural, psychological, and social contexts of gender These contexts can be congruent or incongruent Examples?

Gender Variations Some do not conform to socially/culturally constructed gender norms How are such violations represented in dominant discourses? Psychological impact of gender variations?

Social Construction of Gender Identity U.S.: gender identity- internalized by age 2 East African societies: boys is a “woman-child” until an initiation rite which makes him a man Mundugumor of New Guinea: women are expected to be violent/aggressive

Instrumentality and Expressiveness Instrumentality: being task-oriented; stereotypically applied to males Expressiveness: being emotionally oriented/focused; stereotypically applied to females “Gender Quotient Test”

Gender Stereotypes and Sexual Orientation Ex. Gay men are not masculine; Lesbian women are not feminine Gay people may have more flexible interpretations of gender roles and expectations (Lippa, 2000)

Cognitive Social Learning Theory Albert Bandura We “learn” gender as a result of: Reinforcements and consequences Imitation/modeling and observation The social world provides many models and messages about gender Body image: “Women’s Ideal Bodies”

Cognitive-Developmental Theory Developmental level impacts cognitive processing of gender Understanding gender in developmental perspective

Gender Schemas Mental frameworks for understanding gender Accounts for gender stereotypes

Social Constructionism Cultures invent or “construct” notions of gender Mediated by language and social systems

Social Constructionism Feminist Studies Post-Modern Approaches Queer Theory

Social Constructionism and Identity (Cohen & Savin-Williams, 1996) Many sexual minority youth are not identifying as gay Rejection of the social construction of sexual orientation

Contextual Influences on Gender Parents “socialize” gender Messages about gender appropriate behavior Directing children to gender appropriate toys

Parents “Socialize” Gender Differential language for the same behavior: “active” boy vs. a girl who is a “tomboy” Directing children toward gender appropriate activities (I.e. helping mom in the kitchen)

Gender Socialization Peers: peer pressure, reinforce gender norms Teachers: differential treatment based on gender? Classroom reinforcement Media: gender roles and stereotypes

Sexual “Scripts” Script: acts/rules/expectations associated with a particular role (male and female “scripts”) Men/women are impacted by certain “scripts” internalized from social interactions

Male Sexual Scripts (Zilbergeld, 1992) Men should not have/express certain feelings Sex is for physicality Men are in charge

Male Sexual Scripts Men always want and are ready for sex Men should be sexually skilled and successful in sexual interactions

Female Sexual Scripts (Barbach, 2001) Sex is good and bad (good in the context of a marriage, stigmatized elsewhere) Masturbation is stigmatized Sex is for men; women are sexually passive (nurturers)

Female Sexual Scripts Women should not articulate their needs/desires Women shouldn’t discuss sex Women should look like models

Androgyny Both instrumental and expressive traits Flexibility in gender roles

Intersexed People Ambiguous genitalia 1 in every 2,000 births Due to genetic or hormonal factors

Intersexed People Sex chromosomes, external genitalia, or internal reproductive system Underdeveloped penis or enlarged clitoris

Intersexed People: Chromosomal Abnormalities Turner Syndrome: XO 1 in 2,000 births Female external genitalia, no ovaries

Turner Syndrome Secondary sexual development cannot occur; no menstruation Short Treated with hormonal therapy Infertility

Klinefelter Syndrome XXY;XXXY;XXXXY 1 in 1,000 births Male genitalia (small penis) Female characteristics: breasts

Klinefelter Syndrome Sparse body hair Learning disabilities Low sex drive, sexual dysfunction

Intersexed People: Hormonal Disorders Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome: (testicular feminization) Inherited condition; passed on through X chromosomes

Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome 1 in 13,000 individuals Genetically male Born with undescended testes (inside the abdomen) estrogen is prevalent in the body

Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome Vagina and labia, but no female internal reproductive structures Secondary female characteristics develop during puberty, without pubic hair

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Genetic female Ovaries Malfunctioning adrenal gland Develops externally as a male

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia 1 in 13,000 births Penis and empty scrotum External genitalia are ambiguous Often assigned “female”

DHT Deficiency Unable to convert testosterone to DHT Internal male organs Ambiguous external genitalia (looking more female)

DHT Deficiency Begin to look male during puberty (genitalia and physical development)

Gender Identity Disorder Cross-gender identification Discomfort with one’s assigned gender Psychological distress

Transsexuality Gender identity and sexual anatomy are not compatible Different from homosexuality

Transgendered People Arguably the most stigmatized sexual minority

Transgendered People An umbrella term; inclusive Flexibility in terms of gender and social identity Move toward transgender rights; legal to fire transgender people in many states

Positioning Theory Rom Harre We “position” ourselves and others in discourse Power relationships

Positioning Theory Ex. Positioning oneself as an expert, others as uninformed Ex. Positioning oneself as masculine, another male as powerless/emasculated

Masculinity How does culture/society construct masculinity? Dominant discourses on masculinity Contested discourses on masculinity

Masculinity How are constructions of masculinity sustained and reproduced?

Hyper-masculinity Exaggerated, stereotypical male behavior Aggression Strength Dominance

Chauvinism Origins: nationalism; revering one’s own group Current usage: male/female relationships Refers to *power*

Anxious Masculinity Enactments of masculinity/manliness that are motivated by a fear of being perceived as feminine “the most important thing about being a man is not being a woman” – Ducat, S.

Anxious Masculinity Rejection of feminine activities/qualities Rejection of non-heterosexual discourses Challenging/needing to prove one’s manliness

Mixed Cultural Messages Masculinity Need to be strong, unemotional, rational, dominant Constructions of the “modern man”- emotionally connected and sensitive

Mansfield article “The Manliness of Men” Holds that feminists fault men for society’s ills “gains and losses” in the women’s movement

Mansfield article Women have a problem with manliness because they are excluded Argues that women overcompensate/seek to be more like men

Mansfield article “Feminists insist that men must work harder to appreciate women. Yet they never ask women to be more understanding of men” - Mansfield

Mansfield article Because women don’t want to be dependent, men may become more selfish (an unintended consequence)

Mansfield article Equates masculinity with “noble sacrifice for a cause beyond oneself”

Ducat book Central Questions: When are men so terrified of being like women? Why must men constantly prove their masculinity?

Ducat: Men’s “fear of the feminine” Being a “sissy” has a very negative connotation Cross-gender behaviors are taboo in men

Ducat Men are encouraged to “cut the apron strings” Exude independence; reject nurturance from mom

Ducat Studies: men were more anxious when engaging in cross gender activities, answering cross gender questions

Ducat Men are conflicted Men reject all things feminine May secretly want to violate these gender barriers

Ducat Men are attracted to qualities in women that they detest in themselves