Moscow in the Cold War, Part 1

The Cold War Compared to World Wars I and II – a long period of peace The main weapons were never used in it Democratization, reforms, progress Why do they call it a war?

Conflict and cooperation The Cold War started in the framework of an international order built jointly by Western democracies and the Soviet Union – wartime allies It had a cooperative base That order never broke down for the remainder of the century, despite being tested severely by Cold War conflicts The Cold War can be seen as global struggle over the specific terms of the international order It came to an end in the 1980s when the struggle subsided, and the order was reinforced through East-West convergence

The Three Worlds The West – capitalist states The East – communist (state socialist) states The Third World – countries emerging from colonial rule

What about “world revolution” and “the communist threat”? A global uprising against “capitalism”? The Global Left  Radicals  Reformists  3d world nationalists  Communist states Never anything united - different interests, goals, strategies

The Global Left didn’t overthrow capitalism Instead, often in spite of their own ideologies, they helped capitalism reform, grow and spread The Global Left’s contributions to the rise of the contemporary world order:  Progress in socioeconomic development  Peaceful coexistence  Decolonization  Expansion of human rights and democracy  East-West convergence

The communist states Each communist state evolved from a rebel state into a developmental state with its national interests and ruling class, behaving in ways similar to any other state  Socioeconomic development  Modernization  Interest in normal relations with the West  Participation in global economy  World revolution postponed indefinitely Convergence of systems

The Cold War started unexpectedly early after the end of WWII – almost without a pause The main cause – enormous upheavals in world politics triggered off by World War II

Western insecurity The crisis of global capitalism The shift to the Left in the politics of Western countries: socialism on the agenda, growth of communist parties The upsurge of national liberation struggles in the Third World The emergence of the USSR as the most powerful state in Eurasia The US steps in to contain both Soviet power and the growth of the Left in the West and in the Third World

Soviet insecurity Enormous economic losses from the war How to control society after the war  The war as school of citizenship  Mass exposure to European life  The population of new territories under Soviet control  The legacy of terror Fear of a united Western coalition against the USSR

Western self-confidence The USSR is internally weak The US is a powerhouse US had enormous advantages in late 1940s:  50% of global production  Nuclear monopoly  Naval and air superiority  Army on a par with USSR  The architect of a liberal world order Totalitarianism will be resisted by most people; the West should promote freedom and liberal democracy

Factors of Soviet self-confidence The Soviet system passed the test of survival and strength Soviet assets:  Control of territory: the dominant power in Eurasia  A powerful state machine capable of mobilizing society for a wide range of tasks – from rebuilding the country to competing with the West in military power  Positive attitudes to Russia in many countries – its role in defeating fascism, its attempt to build a new, non- capitalist society Capitalism is in systemic crisis The postwar rise of the Global Left eases Western pressures on the Soviets

The Global Left: the postwar offensive EUROPE  Yugoslavia and Albania – Communists have come to power on their own  Greece, Italy, France – Communist parties may come to power on their own  Germany, Austria, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria – defeated states in shambles; Soviet occupation a major boost to local Communists  Poland – Soviet occupation assures Communist takeover  Czechoslovakia – gradual Communist takeover from a strong domestic base, with Soviet help  Moderate, reformist Left makes major political gains in the West (e.g. Labour Party in Britain, German Social Democrats, French Socialists)

The West was primarily concerned about survival and rebuilding of capitalism in Western Europe USSR was primarily concerned about strategic control of Eastern Europe – securing the Western flank The division of Europe, agreed in 1945, was institutionalized The fate of Germany remained the one major bone of contention – but even there, the lines established in 1945 helped stabilize the situation In Asia, it was a series of open-ended continental struggles – but not between Russia and America

ASIA: Indochina: Vietnamese Communists as the main anti- colonialist force, proclaim Vietnam’s independence in 1945 China, : Communists defeat Nationalists Korea, 1945: Communists control the North with Soviet help, try to conquer the South in 1950 India, 1947: Independence won by nationalists supported by communists Indonesia, Burma: nationalist-communist coalitions lead anticolonial campaigns Iran: the rise of a Communist-nationalist alliance Turkey: emergence of a strong Communist-led Left The Mideast  The establishment of Israel - with Soviet support  The rise of Arab nationalism against Western colonial rule

“Containment of Communism” The state-to-state level: C of the USSR. Nuclear deterrence, a chain of anti-Soviet alliances (NATO and others), economic attrition strategies, propaganda war against Communism, subversion The transnational level: C. of the Global Left. Revival of the global economy, the Marshall Plan, use of force, propaganda, subversion - and also cooptation, tactical alliances with elements of the Global Left on anti-Soviet platforms A massive, complex, messy, costly, evolving strategy of saving global capitalism

Did containment work? 1. Yes: in Europe. Why?  There was a geopolitical deal between Stalin and the West (Yalta)  Successful cooptation of the reformist Left  Stalin’s influence on Western Communists and his policy of discouraging revolution 2. In Asia, these conditions were absent:  No deal  The US refused to co-opt the Left  Asian Left-wing forces were mostly out of Soviet control; Stalin was prepared to gamble (Korea) 3. Soviet totalitarianism hardens, a crackdown in Eastern Europe

By 1950, containment looked like a manifest failure: The USSR rapidly rebuilt its economy (5 years instead of expected years) and went nuclear Eastern Europe was firmly under Soviet control China went Communist North Korea invaded the South The image of Communism on the march; unstoppable, winning Revolt of the American Right against failing Cold War policy

: start of a new phase in the Cold War Nov. 1952:  Gen. Dwight Eisenhower is elected US President with a commitment to victory in the Cold War  First hydrogen bomb tested by the US Stalin considers a new world war inevitable

1949: Celebrating Stalin’s 70 th birthday, Molotov delivering report

American soldiers in the Korean War

Dwight D. Eisenhower is inaugurated as US President

March 1953:  Stalin dies, a new leadership emerges in the Kremlin. It proclaims the goal of peaceful coexistence  Release of GULAG prisoners begins May 1953:  The war in Korea continues. Pres. Eisenhower approves a military plan for winning in Korea which includes use of atom bombs July: Armistice signed in Korea

Moscow, March 1953: Stalin’s funeral

Survivors (L to R): Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov, Premier Nikolai Bulganin, Communist Party Secretary Nikita Khrushchev, Geneva, 1955

Stalinism could not survive Stalin’s death --Extreme degree of state control over society, permanent emergency rule was hard to maintain --Communist elites needed more normal, stable regimes in which they would be secure from dangers from: the dictators the people --War with the West was not inevitable; coexistence of the two systems was possible; the Korean War could be stopped by negotiation

Changes were inevitable: they were in the interests both of the rulers and of the ruled BUT: Stalinist features remained at the foundation of communist power --Communist bureaucracy reigned as the New Class (nomenklatura); no interest in sharing power --One-party systems --Control of information --Mechanisms of repression (security services, the military) remained in place

Post-Stalin changes Dismantle some elements of the totalitarian system Negotiate to end the Korean War Relaxation of tensions with the West First steps toward nuclear arms control Development of ties with newly independent states in the Third World Seek to widen cooperation with the Global Left

Khrushchev’s conviction: the global revolutionary process continues leading to ultimate victory of communism over capitalism How will communism win? By creating better conditions of life for working people: Peaceful competition between the two social systems, struggle for people’s minds and hearts Meanwhile. the two systems can and must avoid war and promote mutual cooperation

February 1956, 20 th Party Congress:  Exposing and condemning Stalin’s rule of terror  War is not inevitable: proclaiming peaceful coexistence between East and West as a realistic policy  Socialism means improvement of the people’s living conditions  Khrushchev establishes his primacy in the leadership

Khrushchev spoke for 5 hours at the 20 th Congress

As Khrushchev was exposing Stalin’s crimes at the Congress, someone in the audience asked:  “If you knew about these mass repressions, why did you keep silent? Khrushchev responded:  “Who said this?” There was no answer.  “So, you keep your mouth shut, eh? Well, I kept mine shut, too.”

Poland, October 1956: reformer Wladyslaw Gomulka comes to power

Imre Nagy, reformer at the head of the Hungarian Communist Party, 1956

Hungary, October 1956: Overthrowing Stalinism

The Hungarian Revolution, 1956

Hungarian revolutionaries in Budapest

Soviet troops move in to save the Communist regime

"Whether you like it or not, history is on our side. We will dig you in" – K to Western Ambassadors at the Polish Embassy in Moscow, Nov K in Yugoslavia, August 1963: "I once said, 'We will bury you,' and I got into trouble with it. Of course we will not bury you with a shovel. Your own working class will bury you,” – He was referring to the Marxist saying, "The proletariat is the undertaker of capitalism”, based on the concluding statement in Chapter 1 of the Communist Manifesto: "What the bourgeoisie therefore produces, above all, are its own grave-diggers. Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable".

K. launches a massive program of free housing construction

Dreaming of turning villages into “agro-cities”

Private ownership of cars was allowed for the first time since the 1920s

Admiring the harvest in his native village

In Kalinovka, his birthplace

June 1957: Minister of Defence Zhukov acted decisively to prevent an attempt by Stalinists to oust Khrushchev

The Space Era starts on Oct.4, 1957 with the launch of Sputnik, Soviet-made Earth satellite

In September 1959, the Soviets were the first to put a space probe, Luna-2, on the Moon

Sergei Korolev, head of the Soviet space program

In 1957, Moscow opens to the world: International Festival of Youth and Students, Russians welcoming American participants

Summer 1959: US National Exhibition in Moscow. Vice President Nixon showing K. a typical American kitchen

The Kitchen Debate

Khrushchev and Nixon, press- conference in Moscow, July 1959: CvQOuNecy4 CvQOuNecy4

Sept – Oct History’s first visit by a top Russian leader to America K. on arrival: "I have not come to the United States to learn anything about America." In fact, he spent two weeks travelling across the country, seeking to learn as much as he could – and came away profoundly impressed

K. arrived in a brand new Soviet superliner, Tu-114

K goes on a “peace offensive”: Proposes a program for general and complete disarmament

Iowa

Hollywood

With Shirley McLaine: “Yes, you can… Can-Can!”

The next day, K. branded the show as “decadent capitalist pornography”, adding: “A human face is more beautiful than a human backside."

Spiros Skouros, President of 20 th Century Fox and Khrushchev: extolling the virtues of democracy, each in his own way

400 Hollywood celebrities, including Marilyn Monroe, accepted invitation to dine with Khrushchev; a few, including Ronald Reagan and Bing Crosby, declined

Pittsburgh

Back in Moscow, K. mused among his close confidants: “They have already built communism in America…”

Extolling virtues of corn to comrades

The Mao challenge Khrushchev needs a strong relationship with Communist China to back him up in his foreign policy From mid-1950s, he orders massive assistance to China in all areas This includes China’s nuclear program But Mao moves into an increasingly hostile posture – in a huge irony, as K. gave him much more than Stalin would ever agree  K’s anti-totalitarian reforms threaten Mao’s own grip on power and Stalinist policies  Mao is wary of K’s rapprochement with the West

K. on Mao: “Old rubber”. Mao on K.: “Rotten egg” (in Chinese, one of the most offensive epithets)

In , the frictions and tensions explode in an open political conflict Mao openly charges K. with betrayal of the world revolution K. terminates the Soviet assistance program Mao begins unofficial contacts with the Americans In Moscow, K’s China policy is viewed by his critics as a disaster