Chapter 5: Photosynthesis Process by which plants, algae, and some microorganisms harness solar energy and convert it into chemical energy With few exceptions, all life on this planet ultimately depends on photosynthesis

Photosynthesis 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 Specialized pigment molecules in plants capture the sun’s energy Enzymes use the energy to build glucose (C6H12O6) from carbon dioxide (CO2) Plant uses water in the process releasing oxygen gas (O2) Light energy 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Photosynthesis Redox – Chemical reaction where electrons are moved from H2O to CO2 Fueled by energy from the sun Uses for glucose – about half for plant’s own cellular respiration, manufacture other compounds, store as starch or sucrose, cellulose for cell walls

Rise of photosynthesis radically altered Earth Heterotrophs – organisms that obtain carbon by consuming preexisting organic molecules Autotrophs – organisms that make their own organic compounds from inorganic compounds (water and CO2) Rise of photosynthesis radically altered Earth Decreased CO2, lowered global temperature, added oxygen gas to atmosphere

Sunlight as energy source Electromagnetic spectrum – range of all possible frequencies of radiation Consists of photons – discrete packets of kinetic energy Shorter wavelengths have more energy Sunlight Ultraviolet (UV) – short wavelength, high energy Visible – perceived by humans, powers photosynthesis Infrared (IR) – long wavelength, low energy, heat

Photosynthesis occurs inside the cell! Chloroplast – organelle of photosynthesis 2 outside membranes enclose stroma Stroma – gelatinous with enzymes, ribosomes, DNA, and grana Grana – stack of thylakoids Thylakoid – membrane studded with photosynthetic pigments enclosing thylakoid space

Pigments Chlorophyll a Accessory pigments Most abundant photosynthetic pigment in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria Accessory pigments Chlorophyll b Carotenoids Only absorbed light is photosynthetically active Absorb red and blue Reflect green Accessory pigments extend used range of wavelengths used

2 stages of photosynthesis Light reactions Occur in thylakoid membranes Convert solar energy to chemical energy Energy from captured photons used to make ATP (stores energy) and NADPH (carries electrons) Oxygen produced as byproduct Carbon reactions ATP and NADPH used to reduce CO2 to glucose Occur in stroma Do not require light – light-independent reactions

Chemiosmotic phosphorylation Phosphorylation - adding P to ADP to make ATP Chemiosmosis – movement of protons across membrane

Carbon reactions Calvin cycle assembles CO2 into glucose Carbon fixation PGAL synthesis RuBP regenerated ATP and NADPH from light reactions provide potential energy and electrons

C3, C4, and CAM All plants use the Calvin cycle (C3 pathway) to make glucose C3 plants use only the Calvin cycle About 95% of plant species (peanuts, spinach, trees) Photorespiration is a problem in hot, dry conditions Rubisco uses O2 as a substrate (instead of CO2) starting a process that removes already fixed carbon If stomata kept closed to prevent water loss, O2 builds up and photorespiration increases

C4 plants CO2 combines with a 3 carbon “ferry” to form 4 carbon oxaloacetate in mesophyll Moves into bundle sheath cells where Calvin cycle occurs Costs 2 ATP but lose less carbon to photorespiration than C3 plants in hot, dry weather Significant water savings 1% of plants – corn, sugarcane

CAM plant Crassulacean acid metabolism Open stomata to fix carbon only at night Store malate in vacuole Fix it again in Calvin cycle during the day Stored malate moves into chloroplast in the same cell 3-4% of plants Pineapple and cacti Saves water

Chapter 6: Cellular Respiration Cells use energy to make food ATP powers every activity that requires energy input in the cell Explains constant need for food (potential energy) 3 ATP-generating pathways Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration Fermentation

Aerobic cellular respiration takes in oxygen and produces carbon dioxide Explains why we must take oxygen into our body and get rid of carbon dioxide

3 main processes of cellular respiration Glucose oxidized and oxygen reduced Released energy becomes trapped in ATP to be used as needed Glycolysis – in cytoplasm - anaerobic Krebs cycle – in mitochondria - aerobic Electron transport chain – in mitochondria - aerobic

Where does cellular respiration occur? Glycolysis occurs in cytoplasm Prokaryotes – other reactions also happen in cytoplasm Eukaryotes – other reactions happen in mitochondria Outer and inner membrane Intermembrane compartment (Cristae) Matrix enclosed by highly folded inner membrane ATP synthase part of inner membrane

Glycolysis 10 steps all in the cytoplasm First 5 steps “activate” glucose – invest 2 ATP to get the process going Last 5 steps produce 4 ATP ATP produced through phosphorylation – donor molecule transfers P to ADP Does not require oxygen (anaerobic) Net gain of 2 ATPs Results in 2 pyruvate and 2 NADH molecules per glucose that goes through glycolysis

Krebs Cycle/ Citric Acid Cycle Pyruvate moves into mitochondria from cytoplasm It is converted to Acetyl CoA and enters Krebs cycle Electrons transferred to NADH and FADH2 ATP produced via phosphorylation Carbon dioxide produced as waste product Cell can use intermediate products to produce other organic molecules

Electron transport chain Embedded in inner mitochondrial membrane In Aerobic respiration, final electron acceptor is oxygen oxygen forms water with hydrogen molecules from the broken-down glucose Chemiosmotic phosphorylation H+ removed from carriers NADH and FADH2 Pumped into intermembrane compartment creating proton gradient Protons moving down gradient through ATP synthase powers the production of many ATP

Most ATP generated from chemiosmotic phosphorylation Produces about 30 ATP total 32% of kilocalories in glucose Rest of potential energy lost as heat

Proteins and lipids for energy Glucose is not our only food; usually a cell uses amino acids from the diet to make more proteins May use amino acids as energy source Fats broken down into glycerol and fatty acids Long fatty acid molecules can yield many acetyl CoA molecules Feed into Krebs cycle

Life can thrive without oxygen Anaerobic respiration Essentially the same as aerobic respiration Final electron acceptor is not O2 Lower ATP yield Fermentation Stops after glycolysis Far less efficient than aerobic respiration Alcoholic or lactic acid fermentation