Historical Thinking Linking History Students, History Teachers, and Historians in the History Laboratory 6 – 7 May 2011 Frederick D. Drake Professor of History and History Education, Emeritus Illinois State University 6 – 7 May 2011 Frederick D. Drake Professor of History and History Education, Emeritus Illinois State University

Problems How can we manage the thinking gaps in our history classrooms? How can we help our students think “inside” and “outside” an event? To what extent can we, as history teachers, use primary sources to promote coherence and close the thinking gaps? How can we manage the thinking gaps in our history classrooms? How can we help our students think “inside” and “outside” an event? To what extent can we, as history teachers, use primary sources to promote coherence and close the thinking gaps?

Thinking Gaps: An Illustration

Fish is Fish (1970) Story and Illustrations by Leo Lionni

Assume the Frog is a Teacher and the Fish is a Student. 1. What are their respective qualities?

2. To what extent does the story Fish is Fish relate to teaching history?

3. What advice would you give the Frog to become a better teacher?

Fish is Fish A young fish is very curious about the world outside the water. His good friend the frog, on returning from the land, tells the fish about it excitedly:

Fish is Fish “I have been about the world—hopping here and there,” said the frog, “and I have seen extraordinary things.” “Like what?” asked the fish. “Birds,” said the frog mysteriously. “Birds!” And he told the fish about the birds, who had wings, and two legs, and many, many colors. As the frog talked, his friend saw the birds fly through his mind like large feathered fish.

Fish is Fish

The frog continues with descriptions of cows, which the fish imagines as black- and-white spotted fish with horns and udders,

Fish is Fish and humans, which the fish imagines as fish walking upright and dressed in clothing.

Three Questions 1.What are the respective qualities of the Frog (Teacher) and the Fish (Student)? 2.To what extent does the story Fish is Fish relate to teaching history? 3.What advice would you give the Frog to become a better teacher?

Fish Is Fish Qualities Relates to Teaching Advice History Fish Frog (Student)(Teacher)

Problems How can we manage the thinking gaps in our history classrooms? How can we help our students think “inside” and “outside” an event? To what extent can we, as history teachers, use primary sources to promote coherence and close the thinking gaps? How can we manage the thinking gaps in our history classrooms? How can we help our students think “inside” and “outside” an event? To what extent can we, as history teachers, use primary sources to promote coherence and close the thinking gaps?

Problems How can we manage the thinking gaps in our history classrooms? What Are the Thinking Gaps? How can we manage the thinking gaps in our history classrooms? What Are the Thinking Gaps?

Four Distinctive Thinkers in the History Classroom 1. History Actors 2. Historians 3. History Students 4. History Teachers 1. History Actors 2. Historians 3. History Students 4. History Teachers

Four Distinctive Thinkers in the History Classroom 1. History Actors – think like people in the past 2. Historians – distinct way of thinking 3. History Students – distinctive thinkers who have theories of doing history and have their theories of evidence 4. History Teachers – thinkers who construct a history class; construct like a historian writes a book selecting evidence to include and leave out 1. History Actors – think like people in the past 2. Historians – distinct way of thinking 3. History Students – distinctive thinkers who have theories of doing history and have their theories of evidence 4. History Teachers – thinkers who construct a history class; construct like a historian writes a book selecting evidence to include and leave out

Hidden Gaps of History Education TeacherStudents Visible Facts (Stuff) Hidden Disciplines’ Concepts, Structure, & Theories (Gives Stuff Meaning) Students’ Own Concepts, Structure, & Theories Where is the gap in the real meaning of history?

Reading Documents: A Comparison HistoriansStudents Chronological Read in order given Source (Attribute) Read top to bottom Corroborate (Relate) Trust one with most authority (picture, teacher, textbook, family) Seldom corroborate (Relate) Dialogue with evidence Raise questions about the context Read for Facts and Trust a source

Suggestions to Narrow Historical Thinking Gaps 1.Overcome “Control” and “Coverage” – enabled by “High- Stakes” Testing: Can’t have an investigative. Interpretive purpose, at heart of democratic citizenship. 2.Choices of: Lecture (what is known has little to with what is done in the classroom) Simulations (for teachers who emphasize empathy) Investigative, Interpretive (primary sources, multiple perspectives, disciplinary concepts)

How Historians Can Help Problem Account Evidence

Historians: Problem, Evidence, Account 1. Frame historical problems 2. Analyze sources and “create” evidence to answer questions; employ a priori thinking; use imagination to plug holes 3. Use informal writing (notes/memos) 4. Write an account; produce a text in response to the initial problem; represent their understanding in narrative/argumentative forms using evidence 5. Show their thinking (footnotes) 6. Use language: hedging, correcting language, reject some evidence 7. Think and study events in the past “Inside” & “outside” the event; consequences

Problems How can we help our students think “inside” and “outside” an event? How can we help our students think “inside” and “outside” an event?

History as Event/History as Account Roy Halladay’s No-Hitter, May 2010

Event/Account InquirerNY TimesMiami Herald

R. G. Collingwood Study the Processes of an Event/Action “Inside” and “Outside”

Studying Events in the Past Thinking “inside” the event. Study the THINKERS. Content “outside” the event What were the “consequences?”

Three Approaches / 1. Narrative / 2. Thematic / 3. Contemporary / 1. Narrative / 2. Thematic / 3. Contemporary

Narrative Students build coherent accounts: Become apprentice historians To think forward and backward Learn chronological thinking and other types of historical thinking Students build coherent accounts: Become apprentice historians To think forward and backward Learn chronological thinking and other types of historical thinking

Thematic Students and Teacher: Focus on Continuity and Change Look at key turning points Select and analyze key events, phenomena, or ideas thematically Examine themes diachronically or synchronically Recognize multiple narratives rather than a grand narrative Students and Teacher: Focus on Continuity and Change Look at key turning points Select and analyze key events, phenomena, or ideas thematically Examine themes diachronically or synchronically Recognize multiple narratives rather than a grand narrative

Contemporary Teachers: Emphasize Continuity and Change Explicitly relate present and past Encourage students examine contemporary concepts Are to be more conscious of various perspectives and student experiences Teachers: Emphasize Continuity and Change Explicitly relate present and past Encourage students examine contemporary concepts Are to be more conscious of various perspectives and student experiences

Problems To what extent can we, as history teachers, use primary sources to promote coherence and close the thinking gaps? To what extent can we, as history teachers, use primary sources to promote coherence and close the thinking gaps?

Doing History “Doing history” does not mean projects. Doing history means using habits of mind to problematize the past and ask and answer historiographical questions. It occurs in the history classroom (laboratory) as history teachers induce their students to reconsider and recast the historical understandings that they bring to the class. “Doing history” does not mean projects. Doing history means using habits of mind to problematize the past and ask and answer historiographical questions. It occurs in the history classroom (laboratory) as history teachers induce their students to reconsider and recast the historical understandings that they bring to the class.

Responsibilities of a History Teacher We know history teachers must:  Ask historical questions  Articulate differences between substantive and disciplinary concepts  Utilize historical habits of mind and model historical thinking We know history teachers must:  Ask historical questions  Articulate differences between substantive and disciplinary concepts  Utilize historical habits of mind and model historical thinking

Introduce World of Primary Sources / Print Documents / Electronic Media / Folklore, Folkways, and Mythology / Arts (Fine Arts, Graphic Arts) / Physical Environment and Material Culture (Built Environment, Artifacts) / Print Documents / Electronic Media / Folklore, Folkways, and Mythology / Arts (Fine Arts, Graphic Arts) / Physical Environment and Material Culture (Built Environment, Artifacts)

The Vocabulary of History  Primary source, secondary source, historiography  Disciplinary concepts Time, change, empathy, cause, evidence, accounts Substantive concepts  Habits of Mind  Vital Themes and Narratives  Primary source, secondary source, historiography  Disciplinary concepts Time, change, empathy, cause, evidence, accounts Substantive concepts  Habits of Mind  Vital Themes and Narratives

Traditional Ways to Use Primary Sources Single Source Multiple Source Single Source Multiple Source

1 st, 2 nd, 3rd Order Approach / External Probing of Primary Sources / Ask When? / Internal Probing of Primary Sources / Ask Author’s Perspective / Ask Meaning for Author / Meaning for Reader / Doing to the Reader / Corroborate with other sources / External Probing of Primary Sources / Ask When? / Internal Probing of Primary Sources / Ask Author’s Perspective / Ask Meaning for Author / Meaning for Reader / Doing to the Reader / Corroborate with other sources

1 st, 2 nd, 3rd Order Approach / External Probing of Primary Sources / Internal Probing of Primary Sources / Contemporary Reading of Sources / Meaning for Reader Today / Doing to Reader Today / External Probing of Primary Sources / Internal Probing of Primary Sources / Contemporary Reading of Sources / Meaning for Reader Today / Doing to Reader Today

Thematic Themes and Habits of Mind

Themes Starting Points: NCHE 6 Vital Themes and Narratives NAEP 4 History Themes Starting Points: NCHE 6 Vital Themes and Narratives NAEP 4 History Themes

Synchronic and Diachronic Wheel for Thematic Teaching North America

Synchronic and Diachronic North America

Habits of Mind NCHE 13 Habits of Mind

Problematizing the Past: Systematic Source Analysis  1 st - Order Document: The most essential primary source for the teacher on a particular topic in history.  2 nd -Order Sources: 3-5 primary or secondary sources that challenge or corroborate the central idea in the 1 st -Order document. At least one source should challenge the 1 st -Order document, and an image should be included.  3 rd -Order Sources: Additional primary or secondary source the student finds to challenge or corroborate the 1 st -Order document.  1 st - Order Document: The most essential primary source for the teacher on a particular topic in history.  2 nd -Order Sources: 3-5 primary or secondary sources that challenge or corroborate the central idea in the 1 st -Order document. At least one source should challenge the 1 st -Order document, and an image should be included.  3 rd -Order Sources: Additional primary or secondary source the student finds to challenge or corroborate the 1 st -Order document.

Establishing an Intellectual Direction / The open-ended question / Recognizing the construction of a narrative / Inviting students into historical conversations / The open-ended question / Recognizing the construction of a narrative / Inviting students into historical conversations

Creating an Open-Ended Question  Invite deliberation and interpretation of the sources  Design the question as “How... ?” or “Why... ?” or “To what extent....?”  The question emerges during the teacher’s planning stages  Prepare follow-up questions prefaced with “How” or “Why” or To what extent.... ?”  Invite deliberation and interpretation of the sources  Design the question as “How... ?” or “Why... ?” or “To what extent....?”  The question emerges during the teacher’s planning stages  Prepare follow-up questions prefaced with “How” or “Why” or To what extent.... ?”

1 st -, 2 nd -, and 3 rd -Order Approach

1 st -, 2 nd - 3rd-Order Method is designed to: / Enable teachers to model the crafting of a thesis / Look at key turning points, change and stability / Enlarge students’ capacity to make history meaningful / Engage students in the implementation of historians’ habits of mind / Compel students to questions sources (source and corroboration heurisistics) / Require students to shape and reshape historical narratives linked to primary sources / Promote deliberative discussion among students. Method is designed to: / Enable teachers to model the crafting of a thesis / Look at key turning points, change and stability / Enlarge students’ capacity to make history meaningful / Engage students in the implementation of historians’ habits of mind / Compel students to questions sources (source and corroboration heurisistics) / Require students to shape and reshape historical narratives linked to primary sources / Promote deliberative discussion among students.

Problems How can we manage the thinking gaps in our history classrooms? How can we help our students think “inside” and “outside” an event? To what extent can we, as history teachers, use primary sources to promote coherence and close the thinking gaps? How can we manage the thinking gaps in our history classrooms? How can we help our students think “inside” and “outside” an event? To what extent can we, as history teachers, use primary sources to promote coherence and close the thinking gaps?

Examples of 1st, 2nd, 3rd Order See Session 4, Appendix B

Using 1st, 2nd, 3rd Order for Assessment Challenge/Corroborate Rubric for Essays Rubric for Document Evaluation

Teaching history and historical thinking is like/unlike a(n).... because....

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1 2 3 Teaching history and historical thinking is like/unlike a(n) ____ because....