Paradigms of Research

Paradigms Frames of reference we use to organize our observations and reasoning. Often implicit, assumed, taken for granted. Become entrenched, resisting change Shift requires revolutionary change in view New paradigms proposes unique ways of seeing and explaining things that then take hold

Macrotheory and Microtheory Macrotheory deals with large, aggregate entities of society or even whole societies. Struggle between economic classes, international relations, interrelations among major institutions Microtheory deals with issues of social life at the level of individuals and small groups. Social interactions, collective deliberation, social perceptions, sense-making

Positivism View that science would replace religion (belief) and metaphysics (logic) by basing knowledge on observation through senses All social research descends from Comte’s view that society could be studied scientifically. Coined the term “sociologie” - study of society Coined the term positivism, in contrast to what he regarded as negative elements of his age.

Social Darwinism Influence of Darwin’s Origin of Species Process of evolution through natural selection Scholars began to apply Darwin’s ideas to changes in the structure of human society. Shift to progressively “fitter” forms of society. “Survival of the fittest” - Herbert Spencer Arguably a misapplication of biological theory

Conflict Theory Karl Marx asserted social behavior could be seen as the process of conflict To dominate and avoid being dominated. Focus on struggle among classes Social Relations of Production Capitalism and Alienation Class Struggle and Hegemony

Symbolic Interactionism Interactions revolve around the process of individuals reaching understanding through language and other systems - Mead & Cooley Meaning - Definition Language - Symbol System Thought - Negotiation Can lend insights into the nature of interactions in ordinary social life, and help understand unusual forms of interaction.

Structural Functionalism A social entity, such as an organization or a whole society, can be viewed as an organism. A social system is made up of parts, each of which contributes to the functioning of the whole, each serves a purpose. This view looks for the “functions” served by the various components of society.

Feminism Focuses on gender differences and how they relate to social organization Attend to women’s oppression in societies, as well as other kinds of oppression Critique of patriarchal structure Critique of dominant social order and norms

Social Cognition Study of mental processes underlying social perception, judgment, and influence Human perception and judgment prone to systematic biases and distortions Conceive of the social world based on “what is at the top of our heads” Schemata - categories of knowledge These categories structure understanding

Group Exercise Get in groups of three and discuss what paradigm you would use to study the relationships between news media and advertisers… Be sure to explain what insights this paradigm would provide Five minutes and then collective discussion

Traditional Model of Science Four elements: theory, conceptualization operationalization, and observation. Develop a Theory. Conceptualize it components Develop operational definitions that specify the process involved in measuring a variable. Observe and measure of what is seen.

Generating Theories Theory: Identifying: A “generalizable” explanation An organized framework of knowledge Identifying: Antecedent factors and processes Consequent factors and processes Contingent conditions

Hypotheses Testable statements derived from theories Observations used to test hypotheses Hypotheses “supported” or “not supported” Not “proven” or “disproven” When hypotheses are not supported: Theory is considered falsified (not useful)

Purpose of Systematiziation Designed to yield “objective” knowledge Different researchers using the same procedures would produce: A. Similar results B. Similar conclusions Known as “inter-subjectivity”

Importance of “Control” Control in scientific observation: Isolating cause and effect Controlling for extraneous factors Removing the biases of the observer Clear conceptual and operational definitions

Knowledge Accumulation Identifying, defining, refining concepts: Operating on two levels: 1. Concrete empirical observations 2. Abstract, generalizable terms: E.g., “social conflict,” “social capital,” or “social status” E.g., “attitudes,” “motivations,” or “perceptions” Integration of the concrete and abstract

Nature of Scientific Evidence 1. Gathered under controlled conditions Specified conditions of observation, procedures Permits replication by other scientists 2. Evidence considered tentative Results could have occurred by chance Statistics used to estimate probability that results occurred by chance Margin of error and confidence intervals 3. Evidence describes patterns that are generalizable Evidence yields inferences to other situations

Frankfurt School Critique of Social Science 1. Inappropriateness of mechanistic approaches “Hard” science approach adapted to human behavior Humans not as predictable as molecules 2. Some important concepts hard to measure: E.g., intelligence, social class, class struggle 3. Focuses only on what currently exists Ignores possibilities of what could be 4. Instrumental nature of knowledge collected Knowledge may reinforce rather than critique existing relations of power in society