Adapted from: Ms. Susan M. Pojer Horace Greeley HS Chappaqua, NY The Eighteenth Century: An Age of Enlightenment “Dare to know! Have the courage to use your own intelligence” –Immanuel Kant The Eighteenth Century: An Age of Enlightenment “Dare to know! Have the courage to use your own intelligence” –Immanuel Kant

An Overview of the 18 c ► Political History  >>> ► Political History  >>> Reform ► Intellectual History   ► Intellectual History  Newtonian Physics  Reason (apply scientific method to all of life. ► Cultural History  ► Cultural History  Individualism ► Social History   ► Social History  Increased Literacy  “Age of Aristocracy” ► Economic History  > ► Economic History  > Mercantilism to Capitalism

18 c Politics ► – Constitutional Monarchy ► BRITAIN  – Constitutional Monarchy ► Royal Absolutism (cultural and religious unity) ► FRANCE  Royal Absolutism (cultural and religious unity) ► “Enlightened Despotism” ► PRUSSIA, HABSBURG EMPIRE, RUSSIA  “Enlightened Despotism” ► – traditional empire ► OTTOMAN EMPIRE –  traditional empire

Chemistry Labs & Botany Gardens Drive was to find laws to govern human society through reason.

The Paths to Enlightenment Many were like Newton, but hard to understand Bernard de Fontenelle Plurality of Worlds –Light heartedly communicated ideas –Down played religion Pierre Bayle (Protestant) –Attacked superstition, religious intolerance and dogmatism –Historical and Critical Dictionary “Bible of the 18 th Century, states would benefit from many religions

Travel Literature –Showed many different cultures –James Cook; Travels New Zealand and Australia –“natural men” far happier –“noble savage” –China and Confusicism very civilized Newton “greatest and rarest genius that ever rose for the instruction of the species” model to find natural laws for politics, economy, justice, religion, and arts Locke; Essay Concerning Human Understanding –No to Descartes innate ideas = tabula rasa –“brave new world” built on reason

The “Enlightened” Individual  The Philosophe ► Not really original thinkers as a whole, but were great publicists of the new thinking  CHANGE & PROGRESS! ► They were students of society who analyzed its evils and advanced reforms.

The Philosophes Not just philosophers, most social reformers All classes French dominated Rationalism – appeal to facts and experiences Freedom of Expression (censorship) –Pseudonyms, anonymous, abroad, double meanings –Banning made items more popular

The Baron de Montesquieu ( ) ► Charles de Secondat ► Persian Letters, 1721 ► Attacked Catholic Church and French Monarchy ► Wanted religious toleration ► No slavery ► Use of reason ► No prejudices

Montesquieu’s Philosophy ► On the Spirit of Laws ► Three types of government:  Monarchy. (midsize, rulers must adhere to the laws)  Republic. (small states w/citizen involvement)  Despotism.( large, rulers depend on fear)  A separation of political powers ensured freedom and liberty.  Wanted French nobles to have more voice

Voltaire ( ) ► AKA  Francois Marie Arouet. (upper middle class, law education, playwright, witty and argumentative) ► Essay on the Customs and Spirit of Nations, 1756 ► Candide, 1759 ► Philosophical Dictionary, 1764 ► Treatise on Toleration ► Religious toleration caused no problems in England ► “all men are brothers under God”

Voltaire’s Philosophic Letters on the English Endorsed freedom of press, political parties and religious tolerance Made English sound better and criticized the French (so he had to move there) Criticized traditional religion, pro tolerance Calas affair: Jean Calas (Prot) accused of torturing and killing his son (wanted to convert to Cath) Deism: God created the mechanical world and let it run with no involvement

Voltaire’s “Wisdom” ► E► E► E► Every man is guilty of all the good he didn’t do. ► G► G► G► God is a comedian playing to an audience too afraid to laugh. ► I► I► I► If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him. ► I► I► I► It is dangerous to be right when the government is wrong. ► L► L► L► Love truth and pardon error. ►J►J►J►Judge of a man by his questions rather than by his answers. ► M► M► M► Men are equal; it is not birth, but virtue that makes the difference. ► P► P► P► Prejudice is opinion without judgment. ► T► T► T► The way to become boring is to say everything. ► I► I► I► I may not agree with what you have to say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.

Denis Diderot ( ) ► All things must be examined, debated, investigated without exception and without regard for anyone’s feelings. ► We will speak against senseless laws until they are reformed; and, while we wait, we will abide by them.

Diderot’s Encyclopédie *Encyclopedia Complete cycle of knowledge…………...… change the general way of thinking. 28 volumes. Alphabetical, cross-referenced, illustrated. First published in livres a set. * Christianity fantastical and unreasonable Attacked religious superstition For tolerance Social, legal and political improvements

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

David Hume ( ) ► Beginning of “sciennce of man” aka social sciences ► Scottish Philosopher ► The Natural History of Religion [][[(1755]). ► Belief in God rested on superstition and fear rather than on reason. ► Focus on observations and reflections

ECONOMIC THEORY Physiocrats: founders of modern economics Francois Quesnay (1694 – 1774) –Doctor & Economist –Called for the end of price controls (reject Mercantilism) –Higher prices for goods would encourage production –Land is the only source of wealth, so focus on agriculture laissez-faire – leave it alone – capitalism

- Adam Smith (1723 – 1790) - free enterprise, free trade, law of supply & demand - Professor at University of Edinburgh - Wealth of Nations (1776) - Invisible hand – any government interference will damage the economy - Humans, if left, will optimize their best interest - If so, economy will operate as efficiently as possible - Individuals can effect the economy by their decisions True wealth is in Laborers Government (army to protect, police for justice, roads and canals)

The Later Enlightenment Baron Paul d’Holbach –Wealthy German –Atheist –Materialist –System of Nature: all is matter in motion

Marquis de Condorcet ( ) ► Progress of the Human Mind, 1794  An expectation of universal happiness.  Every individual guided by reason could enjoy true independence.  He advocated a free and equal education, constitutionalism, and equal rights for women.

Jean Jacques Rousseau ( ) ► Born in Geneva ► Kept man of wealthy older woman A Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Man Government is a necessary evil Emile, education should foster natural instincts Balance the heart/mind and instinct/reason

Rousseau The Social Contract, 1762.The Social Contract, –True freedom is living by the laws you make –The right kind of political order could make people truly moral and free. –Individual moral freedom could be achieved only by learning to subject one’s individual interests to the “General Will.” –Individuals did this by entering into a social contract not with their rulers, but with each other. »This social contract was derived from human nature, not from history, tradition, or the Bible.

Rousseau’s Philosophy (I) ► Question  Does progress in the arts and sciences correspond with progress in morality?  As civilizations progress, they move away from morality.  Science & art raised artificial barriers between people and their natural state.  Therefore, the revival of science and the arts had corrupted social morals, not improved them! NO!

Rousseau’s Philosophy (II)  Virtue exists in the ”state of nature,” but lost in “society.”  Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains.  The concept of the ”Noble Savage.”  Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.  Civil liberty  invest ALL rights and liberties into a society.

Rousseau’s Philosophy (IV)  Had a great influence on the French revolutionaries of  His attacks on private property inspired the communists of the 19 c such as Karl Marx.  Didn’t practice what he preached in regards to parenting and childcare

“Women’s Question” Diderot and Voltaire Mary Astell –Daughter of wealthy coal merchant –A Serious Proposal to the Ladies (need to become better educated) –Some Reflections Upon Marriage (equality of spouses within a marriage)

MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT (1759 – 1797) Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) An attack on Rousseau’s ideas Women obeying men = slavery We have reason = rights Promoted political, economic & educational equality for women Mother of Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley

Madame Geoffrin’s Salon Mostly aristocrats and upper middle class Literate!!

A Parisian Salon Many said these gave women to much power Some other groups meet in public Other private groups formed Select Society of Edinburgh American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia Freemasons (London, France, Italy, and Prussia)

The Salonnieres Madame Geoffrin ( ) Mademoiselle Julie de Lespinasse (1732*-1776) Madame Suzanne Necker ( )

Other Female Salons ► Wealthy Jewish women created nine of the fourteen salons in Berlin. ► In Warsaw, Princess Zofia Czartoryska gathered around her the reform leaders of Poland-Lithuania. ► Middle-class women in London used their salons to raise money to publish women’s writings.

Female Philosophes ► Emilie du Chatalet, a French noblewoman ( ). ► Wrote extensively about the mathematics and physics of Gottfried Wilhelm von Lebnitz and Isaac Newton. ► Her lover, Voltaire, learned much of his science from her.