© Cengage Learning 2015 LIVING IN THE ENVIRONMENT, 18e G. TYLER MILLER SCOTT E. SPOOLMAN © Cengage Learning Nonrenewable Mineral Resources

© Cengage Learning 2015 Crucial to the technologies that support today’s lifestyles and economies –Used to make LCDs, LED light bulbs, fiber optic cables, cell phones, and digital cameras Without affordable supplies of rare earth elements, we could not develop cleaner technologies Core Case Study: The Crucial Importance of Rare-Earth Metals

Fig. 14-2, p. 350 Catalytic converter Cerium Lanthanum Battery Lanthanum Cerium Electric motors and generator Dysprosium Neodymium Praseodymium Terbium LCD screen Europium Yttrium Cerium

© Cengage Learning 2015 Dynamic processes within the earth and on its surface produce the mineral resources on which we depend Mineral resources are nonrenewable –Produced and renewed over millions of years mostly by the earth’s rock cycle 14-1 What Are the Earth’s Major Geological Processes/Mineral Resources?

© Cengage Learning 2015 Geology –Study of dynamic processes taking place on earth’s surface and in earth’s interior Three major concentric zones of the earth 1.Core 2.Mantle 3.Crust The Earth Is a Dynamic Planet

© Cengage Learning Core: innermost zone; extremely hot and has a solid inner layer surrounded by molten rock, or hot liquid rock, and semisolid material –2. Mantle Made mostly of solid rock that can be soft and pliable at very high temperatures. including the asthenosphere (volume of hot, partly melted rock that flows)

© Cengage Learning 2015 –Tremendous heat within the core and mantle generates convection cells or currents that move large volumes of rock and heat in loops within the mantle like gigantic conveyor belts. –3. Crust Outermost and thinnest zone of solid material. Consists of continental crust and oceanic crust( 71% of crust) Crust and outermost part of the mantle make the lithosphere

Fig. 14-3, p. 351 Spreading center Oceanic crust Continental crust Material cools as it reaches the outer mantle Cold dense material falls back through mantle Hot material rising through the mantle Mantle convection cell Two plates move towards each other. One is subducted back into the mantle on a falling convection current. Mantle Hot outer core Inner core Asthenosphere

© Cengage Learning 2015 Mineral –Naturally occurring compound that exists as a crystalline solid; Mercury, gold Mineral resource –Concentration that we can extract and process into raw materials; Salt, quartz Rock –Solid combination of one or more minerals; limestone (calcium carbonate), granite (mica, feldspar, and quartz) What Are Minerals and Rocks?

© Cengage Learning Sedimentary rock –Made of sediments Dead plant and animal remains Tiny particles of weathered and eroded rocks Dolomite and limestone Types of rock

© Cengage Learning Igneous rock –Intense heat and pressure when magma wells up from earth’s mantle and then cools and hardens –Granite and lava rock 3.Metamorphic rock –Existing rock subjected to high temperatures, pressures, fluids, or a combination –Slate and marble Types of rock

© Cengage Learning 2015 Rock cycle –Rocks are recycled over millions of years –3 Processes: Erosion, melting, and metamorphism –Produce sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks respectively –Rocks are broken down, melted, fused together, cooled, and recrystallized –Slowest of earth’s cycle processes Earth’s Rocks Are Recycled Very Slowly

© Cengage Learning different minerals from the earth’s crust: –Metallic minerals Aluminum, gold –Nonmetallic minerals Sand and limestone

© Cengage Learning 2015 Ore –Contains profitable concentration of a mineral through mining and processing –High-grade ore –Low-grade ore Metallic mineral resources –Aluminum for automobiles –Iron for steel –Copper for conducting electricity We Depend on a Variety of Nonrenewable Mineral Resources

© Cengage Learning 2015 Nonmetallic mineral resources –Sand, gravel, and limestone Reserves –Estimated supply of a mineral resource We Depend on a Variety of Nonrenewable Mineral Resources (cont’d.)

© Cengage Learning 2015 Fig. 14-5, p. 353 Erosion Transportation Weathering Deposition Igneous rock Granite, pumice, basalt Sedimentary rock Sandstone, limestone Heat, pressure Cooling Heat, pressure, stress Magma (molten rock) Melting Metamorphic rock Slate, marble, gneiss, quartzite

© Cengage Learning 2015 Nonrenewable mineral resources exist in finite amounts –Can become economically depleted when it costs more than it is worth to find, extract, and process the remaining deposits There are several ways to extend supplies of mineral resources –But each of these is limited by economic and environmental factors How Long Might Supplies of Nonrenewable Mineral Resources Last?

© Cengage Learning 2015 Reserves –Identified deposits from which we can extract the mineral profitably Depletion time –Time to use a certain portion of reserves, usually 80% Supplies of Nonrenewable Mineral Resources Can Be Economically Depleted

© Cengage Learning 2015 When a resource becomes economically depleted: –Recycle or reuse existing supplies –Waste less –Use less –Find a substitute –Do without Nonrenewable Mineral Resources Can Be Economically Depleted (cont’d.)

© Cengage Learning 2015 A Mine, use, throw away; no new discoveries; rising prices Depletion time A Recycle; increase reserves by improved mining technology, higher prices, and new discoveries B Depletion time B Recycle, reuse, reduce consumption; increase reserves by improved mining technology, higher prices, and new discoveries C Depletion time C Production Present Time Stepped Art Fig. 14-6, p. 360

© Cengage Learning 2015 Rare-earth elements aren’t really rare, but they are hard to find in concentrations high enough to extract and process at an affordable price. 50% of reserves are in China, where they produce 97% of the world’s rare-earth metals and oxides 13% reserves are in US, but they produce none Global and U.S. Rare-Earth Supplies

© Cengage Learning 2015 An increase in price of a scarce mineral recourse can often lead to increased supplies and can encourage more efficient use. However, subsidies and tax breaks to mining companies are keeping mineral prices artificially low Market Prices Affect Supplies of Nonrenewable Minerals

© Cengage Learning 2015 Factors that limit the mining of lower-grade ores –Increased cost of mining and processing larger volumes of ore –Availability of freshwater –Environmental impact To improve mining technology and lessen E.I: –Using microorganisms – biomining (slow process) Can We Expand Reserves by Mining Lower-Grade Ores?

© Cengage Learning 2015 May be less E.I. than on land Mineral resources dissolved in the ocean –Low concentrations and so take a great deal of money and energy; just magnesium, bromine, and sodium chloride Deposits of minerals in sediments along the shallow continental shelf and near shorelines –Great source of sand, gravel, phosphates, copper, iron, and more! Can We Get More Minerals from the Ocean?

© Cengage Learning 2015 Hydrothermal ore deposits –Copper, lead, zinc, silver, gold –Hot water vents in the ocean floor Metals from the ocean floor –Manganese nodules

© Cengage Learning 2015 Hydrothermal ore deposits What is the effect of mining on aquatic life? Can We Get More Minerals from the Ocean? (cont’d.)

Fig. 14-8, p. 356 Black smoker White smoker Sulfide deposits Magma White clam White crab Tube worms

© Cengage Learning 2015 Extracting minerals from the earth’s crust and converting them into useful products can: –Disturb the land –Erode soils –Produce large amounts of solid waste –Pollute the air, water, and soil 14-3 What Are The Environmental Effects From Using Nonrenewable Minerals?

© Cengage Learning 2015 Metal product life cycle –Includes mining, processing, manufacturing, and disposal Environmental impacts –Determined by an ore’s grade Percentage of metal content Higher-grade ores are exploited first because lower-grade take more money, energy, and resources and lead to more pollution, waste, and disruption Mineral Use Creates Environmental Impacts

© Cengage Learning 2015 Fig. 14-9, p. 357 MiningMetal ore Separation of ore from waste material SmeltingMelting metal Conversion to product Discarding of product Recycling

© Cengage Learning 2015 Surface mining –Removes shallow deposits –vegetation, soil, and rock overlying a mineral deposit are cleared away –Overburden (soil and rock) are deposited into spoils (waste material) –Used to extract about 90% of nonfuel mineral resources and 60% of coal in US. Removing Mineral Deposits Has Harmful Environmental Effects

© Cengage Learning 2015 Open-pit mining –Machines are used to dig very large holes and remove metal ores containing copper, gold, or other metals Strip mining –Any form of mining involving the extraction of mineral deposits that lie in large horizontal beds close to the earth’s surface –Removes mineral deposits or an energy source such as coal

© Cengage Learning 2015 Contour strip mining –used mostly to mine coal and various mineral resources on hilly or mountainous terrain. Mountaintop removal –Top of a mountain is removed to expose seams of coal, which are then extracted

© Cengage Learning 2015 Fig , p. 358

© Cengage Learning 2015 Fig , p. 358

Fig , p. 359 Undisturbed land Overburden Pit Bench Spoil banks

© Cengage Learning 2015 Subsurface mining –Deep deposits; underground mineral resources are removed through tunnels and shafts –Potential problems Miners often get lung disease Subsidence Acid mine drainage (when rainwater seeps through a mine and carries sulfuric acid to nearby streams and groundwater) Removing Mineral Deposits Has Harmful Environmental Effects (cont’d.)

Fig , p. 360

© Cengage Learning 2015 At about 90% of the world’s gold mines –Mineral extracted with cyanide salts –Cyanide is extremely toxic Mining companies declare bankruptcy –Allows them to avoid environmental remediation Case Study: The Real Cost of Gold

© Cengage Learning 2015 Ore extracted by mining has two components: –1. Ore mineral, containing the desired metal –2. Waste material, or tailings that are left in piles or put into tailings ponds –After waste is removed, smelting using heat or chemicals is used to extract metals mineral ores. Can cause: Air pollution Water pollution Removing Metals from Ores Has Harmful Environmental Effects

© Cengage Learning 2015 We can: –Try to find substitutes for scarce resources –Reduce resource waste –Recycle and reuse minerals 14-4 How Can We Use Mineral Resources More Sustainability?

© Cengage Learning 2015 Materials revolution –Silicon replacing some metals for common uses New technologies: –Substitute scarce minerals through nanotechnology  ceramics, and high- strength plastics Substitution doesn’t always work –Platinum – industrial catalyst with no substitue We Can Find Substitutes for Some Scarce Mineral Resources

© Cengage Learning 2015 Recycling and reuse –Lower environmental impact than mining and processing metals from ores –To ensure adequate supplies of rare-earth elements in the short-term and long-term, use alternatives like extracting from e-waste –Substitutes for rare-earth elements (using lithium-ion batteries) We Can Use Mineral Resources More Sustainably

© Cengage Learning 2015 Solutions: Sustainable Use of Nonrenewable Minerals Fig , p. 364

© Cengage Learning 2015 Dynamic processes move matter within the earth and on its surface and can cause volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, erosion, and landslides 14-5 What Are the Earth’s Major Geologic Hazards?

© Cengage Learning 2015 The earth’s crust is broken into tectonic plates –“Float” on the asthenosphere very slowly Much geological activity takes place at the plate boundaries as they separate, collide, or grind causing mountains to form, earthquakes to shake parts of the crust, and volcanoes to erupt. The Earth Beneath Your Feet Is Moving

© Cengage Learning 2015 Fig , p. 366 Eurasian plateNorth American plate Juan De Fuca plate Caribbean plate African plate Pacific plate Cocos Plate South American plate Arabian plate Philippine plate Pacific plate Nazca plate Indian-Australian plate Scotia plate Antarctic plate

© Cengage Learning 2015 Volcano –Magma rising through the lithosphere reaches the earth’s surface through a crack called a fissure and forms lava and builds into a cone –Form along boundaries of tectonic plates –Eruption – release of lava, hot ash, and gases into the environment Can be very destructive: loss of life, obliterating ecosystems and human communities Can be very beneficial: formation of majestic mountains and lakes Volcanoes Release Molten Rock from the Earth’s Interior

Fig , p. 367 Extinct volcanoes Eruption cloud Ash Acid rain Ash fl ow Lava fl ow Mud fl ow Landslide Central vent Magma conduit Magma reservoir

Fig , p. 367

© Cengage Learning 2015 Earthquake –Breakage and shifting of rocks Occurs at a fault (fracture in the earth’s crust) –Moving through the rock in all directions are seismic waves Vibrations in the crust from the energy accumulated from the fault formation –Focus – origin of earthquake –Magnitude – severity of earthquake –Amplitude – size of the seismic waves Earthquakes Are Geological Rock-and-Roll Events

© Cengage Learning 2015 Richter scale –Insignificant: <4.0 –Minor: 4.0–4.9 –Damaging: 5.0–5.9 –Destructive: 6.0–6.9 –Major: 7.0–7.9 –Great: >8.0 Largest recorded: 9.5 in Chile, 1960 Earthquakes Are Geological Rock-and-Roll Events (cont’d.)

Fig , p. 366

© Cengage Learning 2015 Fig , p. 367 Liquefaction of recent sediments causes buildings to sink Two adjoining plates move laterally along the fault line Earth movements cause fl ooding in low-lying areas Landslides may occur on hilly ground Shock waves Focus Epicenter

© Cengage Learning 2015 Fig b, p. 367

© Cengage Learning 2015 Tsunami (aka Tidal Waves) –Series of huge waves generated when ocean floor suddenly rises or drops –Usually caused by certain types of faults in the ocean floor moving up or down as a result of an underwater earthquake. –Travels several hundred miles per hour December 2004 – Indian Ocean tsunami –Magnitude 9.15 and 31-meter waves at shore Earthquakes on the Ocean Floor Can Cause Huge Waves Called Tsunamis

© Cengage Learning – Japan tsunami –Damaged nuclear reactors Detection of tsunamis –Buoys in open ocean Earthquakes on the Ocean Floor Can Cause Huge Waves Called Tsunamis

Fig a, p. 368 Earthquake in sea fl oor swiftly pushes water upwards, and starts a series of waves Waves move rapidly in deep ocean reaching speeds of up to 890 kilometers per hour. As the waves near land they slow to about 45 kilometers per hour but are squeezed upwards and increased in height. Waves head inland causing damage in their path. Undersea thrust fault

Fig b, p. 368 Upward wave Earthquake

© Cengage Learning 2015 Dynamic forces that move matter within the earth: –Recycle the earth’s rocks –Form deposits of mineral resources –Cause volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and tsunamis Three Big Ideas

© Cengage Learning 2015 The available supply of a mineral resource depends on: –How much of it is in the earth’s crust –How fast we use it –The mining technology used to obtain it –Market prices –Harmful environmental effects of removing and using it Three Big Ideas (cont’d.)

© Cengage Learning 2015 We can use mineral resources more sustainably by: –Trying to find substitutes for scarce resources –Reducing resource waste –Reusing and recycling nonrenewable minerals Three Big Ideas (cont’d.)

© Cengage Learning 2015 Rare-earth elements are important for a variety of modern technologies New technological developments can help extend mineral supplies –Nanotechnology –Biomining –Graphene Tying It All Together: Rare-Earth Metals and Sustainability