Gender and Educational and Occupational Choices Jacquelynne S. Eccles University of Michigan July 18, 2007 Acknowledgements: This research was funded by grants from NIMH, NSF, and NICHD to Eccles and by grants from NSF, Spencer Foundation and W.T. Grant to Eccles and Barber

Why are women still less likely to go into engineering and physical science ? My goals today: My goals today: To provide one perspective on this quite complex question – a perspective grounded in Expectancy – Value Models of Achievement-related Choices To provide one perspective on this quite complex question – a perspective grounded in Expectancy – Value Models of Achievement-related Choices To summarize what we have found in our 3 longitudinal studies To summarize what we have found in our 3 longitudinal studies To make recommendations for increasing the participation of women in engineering and physical science To make recommendations for increasing the participation of women in engineering and physical science

Eccles et al. General Expectancy Value Model of Achievement Choices: A. Cultural Milieu 1. Gender role stereotypes 2. Cultural stereotypes of subject matter and occupational characteristics 3. Family Demographics E. Child's Perception of… 1. Socializer's beliefs, expectations, attitudes, and behaviors 2. Gender roles 3. Activity stereotypes and task demands G. Child's Goals and General Self-Schemata 1. Personal and social identities 2. Possible and future selves 3. Self-concept of one's general/other abilities 4. Short-term goals 5. Long-term goals I. Activity Specific Ability Self Concept and Expectations for Success B. Socializer's Beliefs and Behaviors C. Stable Child Characteristics 1. Aptitudes of child and sibs 2. Child gender 3. Birth order D. Previous Achievement- Related Experiences F. Child's Interpretations of Experience H. Child's Affective Reactions and Memories J. Subjective Task Value 1. Interest -enjoyment value 2. Utility Value 3. Attainment value Relative cost 5. Prior Investments K. Achievement-Related Choices, Engagement and Persistence Across Time

Eccles et al. General Expectancy Value Model of Achievement Choices: A. Cultural Milieu 1. Gender role stereotypes 2. Cultural stereotypes of subject matter and occupational characteristics 3. Family Demographics E. Child's Perception of… 1. Socializer's beliefs, expectations, attitudes, and behaviors 2. Gender roles 3. Activity stereotypes and task demands G. Child's Goals and General Self-Schemata 1. Personal and social identities 2. Possible and future selves 3. Self-concept of one's general/other abilities 4. Short-term goals 5. Long-term goals I. Activity Specific Ability Self Concept and Expectations for Success B. Socializer's Beliefs and Behaviors C. Stable Child Characteristics 1. Aptitudes of child and sibs 2. Child gender 3. Birth order D. Previous Achievement- Related Experiences F. Child's Interpretations of Experience H. Child's Affective Reactions and Memories J. Subjective Task Value 1. Interest -enjoyment value 2. Utility Value 3. Attainment value Relative cost 5. Prior Investments K. Achievement-Related Choices, Engagement and Persistence Across Time

Eccles et al. General Expectancy Value Model of Achievement Choices: A. Cultural Milieu 1. Gender role stereotypes 2. Cultural stereotypes of subject matter and occupational characteristics 3. Family Demographics E. Child's Perception of… 1.. Socializer's beliefs, expectations, attitudes, and behaviors 2. Gender roles 3. Activity stereotypes and task demands G. Child's Goals and General Self-Schemata 1. Personal and social identities 2. Possible and future selves 3. Self-concept of one's general/other abilities 4. Short-term goals 5. Long-term goals I. Activity Specific Ability Self Concept and Expectations for Success B. Socializer's Beliefs and Behaviors C. Stable Child Characteristics 1. Aptitudes of child and sibs 2. Child gender 3. Birth order D. Previous Achievement- Related Experiences F. Child's Interpretations of Experience H. Child's Affective Reactions and Memories J. Subjective Task Value 1. Interest -enjoyment value 2. Utility Value 3. Attainment value Relative cost 5. Prior Investments K. Achievement-Related Choices, Engagement and Persistence Across Time

Eccles et al. General Expectancy Value Model of Achievement Choices: A. Cultural Milieu 1. Gender role stereotypes 2. Cultural stereotypes of subject matter and occupational characteristics 3. Family Demographics E. Child's Perception of… 1.. Socializer's beliefs, expectations, attitudes, and behaviors 2. Gender roles 3. Activity stereotypes and task demands G. Child's Goals and General Self-Schemata 1. Personal and social identities 2. Possible and future selves 3. Self-concept of one's general/other abilities 4. Short-term goals 5. Long-term goals I. Activity Specific Ability Self Concept and Expectations for Success B. Socializer's Beliefs and Behaviors C. Stable Child Characteristics 1. Aptitudes of child and sibs 2. Child gender 3. Birth order D. Previous Achievement- Related Experiences F. Child's Interpretations of Experience H. Child's Affective Reactions and Memories J. Subjective Task Value 1. Interest -enjoyment value 2. Utility Value 3. Attainment value Relative cost 5. Prior Investments K. Achievement-Related Choices, Engagement and Persistence Across Time

Expectations for Success 1. Ability Self Concepts – What am I good at? 2. Task Difficutly – What will it take in order to succeed?

Subjective Task Value 1. Interest Value – Enjoyment one gets from doing the activity itself 2. Utility Value – Relation of the activity to one’s short and long range goal

Subjective Task Value Continued 3. Attainment Value: Extent to which engaging in the activity confirms an important component on one’s self-schema or increases the likelihood of obtaining a desired future self or avoiding an undesired future self. a. Individuals seek to confirm their possession of characteristics central to their self-schema. b. Various tasks provide differential opportunities for such confirmation. c. Individuals will place more value on those tasks that provide the opportunities for this confirmation. d. Individuals will be more likely to choice those activities that have high attainment value.

Subjective Task Value Continued 4. Cost – Psychological Costs Fear of Success, Fear of Failure, Anxiety Anxiety Financial Costs Lost Opportunities to Fulfill Other Goals or to do Other Activities

How Does This Relate To Women and Careers in Engineering and Physical Science? How Does This Relate To Women and Careers in Engineering and Physical Science?

Gender and Ability Self Concepts and Personal Expectations Cultural Stereotypes about Which Gender is Supposed to be Good at Which Skills Cultural Stereotypes about Which Gender is Supposed to be Good at Which Skills Extensive Socialization Pressures to Make Sure These Stereotypes are Fulfilled Extensive Socialization Pressures to Make Sure These Stereotypes are Fulfilled

Gender-Roles and Subjective Task Value 1. Different Hierarchies of Core Personal Values a. Concern with Social Goals versus Concern with Power or Achievement Goals; b.Concern with Social Relationships versus concern with Individual Achievement and Status. c.Interest in Things versus Interest in People. d.Interest in Cooperation versus Interest in Competition 2.Density of Hierarchy a.Single-mindedness versus Diverse Interests

Gender-Roles and Subjective Task Value Continued 3. Different Long Range Goals 4. Different Definitions of Success in Various Goals and Roles. a. What does it take to be a successful father versus a successful mother? b.What does it take to be a successful professional? c.What does it take to be a successful human being?

Michigan Study of Adolescent Life Transitions (MSALT) Waves 1-4 Jacque Eccles Carol Midgley Allan Wigfield Jan Jacobs Connie Flanagan Harriet Feldlaufer David Reuman Doug MacIver Dave Klingel Doris Yee Christy Miller Buchanan Waves 5-8 Jacque Eccles Bonnie Barber Lisa Colarossi Deborah Jozefowicz Pam Frome Sarah Lord Mina Vida Robert Roeser Laurie Meschke

OVERVIEW OF DESIGN AND SAMPLE: MICHIGAN STUDY OF ADOLESCENT LIFE TRANSITIONS – MSALT DESIGN: On-going Longitudinal Study of One Birth Cohort Data Collected in Grades 6, 7, 10, 12; and again at Ages 20 and 25 Data Collected from Adolescents, Parents, and School – Most Using Survey Forms SAMPLE:Nine School Districts Approximately 1,200 Adolescents Approximately 90% White Approximately 51% Female Working/Middle Class Background

Key Findings Girls had lower confidence in their math abilities than their English abilities from grade 7 on Girls had lower confidence in their math abilities than their English abilities from grade 7 on Girls had lower confidence in their math abilities than boys from grade 7 on Girls had lower confidence in their math abilities than boys from grade 7 on The reverse was true for boys The reverse was true for boys In second study, we found these differences were already established by first grade In second study, we found these differences were already established by first grade

Key Findings Parents are major contributors to these sex differences. Parents are major contributors to these sex differences. Parents have different views of their sons’ and daughters’ abilities despite comparability in their actual performance Parents have different views of their sons’ and daughters’ abilities despite comparability in their actual performance Parents provide different opportunities to engage in science related activities to sons and daughters Parents provide different opportunities to engage in science related activities to sons and daughters Parents make different attributions for their sons’ and daughters’ performance in math and science Parents make different attributions for their sons’ and daughters’ performance in math and science

Conclusions Sex Differences Occur for Both Ability Self Concepts and Subjective Task Values Sex Differences Occur for Both Ability Self Concepts and Subjective Task Values Sex Differences Emerge Quite Young Sex Differences Emerge Quite Young Sex Differences are Heavily Socialized in the Family Sex Differences are Heavily Socialized in the Family These Sex Differences are often reinforced in Classrooms and among the Children Themselves These Sex Differences are often reinforced in Classrooms and among the Children Themselves Do These Differences Mediate Sex Differences in Course Taking and Career Choice? Do These Differences Mediate Sex Differences in Course Taking and Career Choice?

YES! At both the high school and college levels

The sex difference in majoring in engineering and physical science majors was primarily due to the sex differences in the students’ high school ratings of their confidence in their math and physical ability and The sex difference in majoring in engineering and physical science majors was primarily due to the sex differences in the students’ high school ratings of their confidence in their math and physical ability and But even more so, their high school ratings of the value they attached to doing well in math and physical science But even more so, their high school ratings of the value they attached to doing well in math and physical science

The sex difference in majoring in engineering and physical science majors was also due to the career values these students reported at age 20: The sex difference in majoring in engineering and physical science majors was also due to the career values these students reported at age 20: Those who reported being interested in a job that involved directly helping people and working in cooperative teams avoided both majoring in engineering and physical science and going into careers in these two fields Those who reported being interested in a job that involved directly helping people and working in cooperative teams avoided both majoring in engineering and physical science and going into careers in these two fields Instead they went into the biological and medical sciences Instead they went into the biological and medical sciences

Suggestions for Intervention: Make science and math educational experiences more “girl-friendly” Make careers in M/E/PS more attractive to females Make training in Engineering in particular more attractive to females Make the workplace in M/E/PS more “woman-friendly”

Suggestions for Intervention: Characteristics of Effective Classrooms Frequent Use of Cooperative Learning Opportunities Frequent Use of Cooperative Learning Opportunities Infrequent Use of Competitive Motivational Strategies Infrequent Use of Competitive Motivational Strategies Frequent Use of Individualized Learning Opportunities Frequent Use of Individualized Learning Opportunities Frequent Use of Strategies Designed to Create Full Class Participation Frequent Use of Strategies Designed to Create Full Class Participation Frequent Use of Hands-On Learning Opportunities Frequent Use of Hands-On Learning Opportunities Frequent Use of Practical Problems as Assignments Frequent Use of Practical Problems as Assignments Active Career and Educational Guidance Aimed at Broadening Students’ View of Math and Physical Sciences Active Career and Educational Guidance Aimed at Broadening Students’ View of Math and Physical Sciences

Increasing Appeal of M/E/PS to Females Interventions to increase the participation of females in M/E/PS need to focus on increasing women’s understanding that M/E/PS and Informational Technology jobs can help people and do involve working with people as well as increasing their confidence in their ability to succeed in these fields. Interventions to increase the participation of females in M/E/PS need to focus on increasing women’s understanding that M/E/PS and Informational Technology jobs can help people and do involve working with people as well as increasing their confidence in their ability to succeed in these fields.

Changing Undergraduate Instruction Make more female friendly Make more female friendly Make more flexible to fit better with today’s middle class undergraduates’ goals Make more flexible to fit better with today’s middle class undergraduates’ goals

Thank You More details and copies can be found at The End