Kepemimpinan dan Manajerial Chapter 1 Mata kuliah : J0782 - Kepemimpinan Entrepreneurial Global Tahun : 2010 Kepemimpinan dan Manajerial Chapter 1

Learning Objectives Understand why leadership has been defined in so many different ways Understand how leadership will be defined in this book Understand the controversy about differences between leadership and management Understand why it is so difficult to assess leadership effectiveness Chapter 1

Learning Objectives (Cont.) Understand the different indicators used to assess leadership effectiveness Understand what aspects of leadership have been studied the most during the past 50 years Understand how leadership can be described as an individual, dyadic, group, or organizational process Understand the organization of this book Chapter 1

Defining Leadership “There are almost as many definitions of Leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define the concept.” (Stogdill, 1974) Chapter 1

Definitions of Leadership Chapter 1

Additional Controversy Specialized role or shared influence process Type of influence process Purpose of influence attempts Influence based on reason or emotions Direct versus indirect leadership Leadership versus management Chapter 1

Specialized Role or Shared Influence Process Specific leadership role – some functions cannot be shared Leaders and followers Shared Influence Process Naturally occurring Any member can be a leader at any time Chapter 1

Type of Influence Process Leadership only occurs when influence attempts results in enthusiastic commitment All types of influence need to be examined – even when forcing or manipulating subordinates Chapter 1

Purpose of Influence Attempts Leadership occurs only when people are influenced to do what is ethical and consistent with organizational goals Look at outcome of the influence attempts and not necessarily the leader’s intended purpose Chapter 1

Influence Based on Reason or Emotion Traditional definitions of leadership emphasize rational, cognitive processes Recent views of leadership emphasize emotional aspects of influence Chapter 1

Leadership vs. Management Leaders and managers are completely different and mutually exclusive Managers are concerned with doing things right (efficiency) Leaders are concerned with doing the right things (effectiveness) Chapter 1

Leadership vs. Management (Cont.) Leaders and managers are different roles but don’t have to be different types of people Mintzberg’s 10 leadership roles Kotter differentiating between managers and leaders in terms of core processes and intended outcomes Rost view of management as an authority relationship and leadership as a multidirectional influence relationship Chapter 1

Direct vs. Indirect Leadership Leader’s direct influence on immediate subordinates Leader’s direct influence on lower-level employees, peers, bosses, or outsiders Indirect leadership Cascading effect of leadership influence Influence over formal programs, management systems, and structural forms Influence over organizational culture Chapter 1

A Working Definition of Leadership “Leadership is the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives.” Chapter 1

What Leaders Can Influence Chapter 1

Indicators of Leadership Effectiveness Performance and growth of leader’s group or organization Follower attitudes and perceptions of the leader Leader’s contribution to the quality of group processes Extent to which a person has a successful career as a leader Development of a composite measure Chapter 1

Immediate and Delayed Outcomes Immediate outcomes easy to measure Willingness to complete a project Delayed outcomes difficult to assess Influenced by extraneous events Leader can effect both immediate and delayed outcomes May be inconsistent and move in opposite directions Chapter 1

Leadership Causal Chain Chapter 1

Key Variables in Leadership Theories Characteristics of the Leader Characteristics of the Follower Characteristics of the Situation Chapter 1

Characteristics of the Leader Traits (motives, personality, values) Confidence and optimism Skills and expertise Behavior Integrity (honesty, behavior consistent with values) Influence tactics Attributions about followers Chapter 1

Characteristics of the Follower Traits (needs, values, self concepts) Confidence and optimism Skills and expertise Attributions about the leader Trust in the leader Task commitment and effort Satisfaction with job and leader Chapter 1

Characteristics of the Situation Type of organizational unit Size of unit Position power and authority of leader Task structure and complexity Task interdependence Environmental uncertainty External dependencies National cultural values Chapter 1

Causal Relationship Between Key Variables Chapter 1

Overview of Major Research Approaches Trait approach Behavior approach Power-influence approach Situational approach Integrative approach Chapter 1

Level of Conceptualization for Leadership Chapter 1

Research Questions at Different Levels of Conceptualization Intra-Individual Theories How leaders manage their time How leader traits and values influence leadership behavior How leader skills are related to leader behavior How leaders make decisions Chapter 1

Research Questions at Different Levels of Conceptualization (Cont.) Intra-Individual Theories (Cont.) How leaders are influenced by role expectations and constraints How leaders react to feedback and learn from experience How leaders can use self-management techniques How leaders can use self-development techniques Chapter 1

Research Questions at Different Levels of Conceptualization (Cont.) Dyadic Theories How a leader influences subordinate motivation and task commitment How a leader facilitates the work of a subordinate How a leader interprets information about a subordinate How a leader develops a subordinate’s skills and confidence Chapter 1

Research Questions at Different Levels of Conceptualization (Cont.) Dyadic Theories (Cont.) How a leader influences subordinate loyalty and trust How a leader uses influence tactics with a subordinate, peer, or boss How a leader and a subordinate influence each other How a leader develops a cooperative exchange relationship with a subordinate Chapter 1

Research Questions at Different Levels of Conceptualization (Cont.) Group-Level Theories How different leader-member relations affect each other and team performance How leadership is shared in the group or team How leaders organize and coordinate the activities of team members How leaders influence cooperation and resolve disagreements in the team or unit Chapter 1

Research Questions at Different Levels of Conceptualization (Cont.) Group-Level Theories (Cont.) How leaders influence collective efficacy and optimism for the team or unit How leaders influence collective learning and innovation in the team or unit How leaders influence collective identification of members with the team or unit How unit leaders obtain resources and support from the organization and other units Chapter 1

Research Questions at Different Levels of Conceptualization (Cont.) Organization-Level Theories How top executives influence lower-level members How leaders are selected at each level (and implications of process for the firm) How leaders influence organizational culture How leaders influence the efficiency and the cost of internal operations Chapter 1

Research Questions at Different Levels of Conceptualization (Cont.) Organization-Level Theories (Cont.) How leaders influence human relations and human capital in the organization How leaders make decisions about competitive strategy and external initiatives How conflicts among leaders are resolved in an organization How leaders influence innovation and major change in an organization Chapter 1

Level of Conceptualization for Leadership Intra-individual process – focuses on processes within a single individual Dyadic process – focuses on the relationship between a leader and another individual Group process – focuses on the leadership role in a task group and how a leader contributes to group effectiveness Organizational process – focuses on leadership as a process that occurs in a larger open system in which groups are a subsystem Multi-level theories – include constructs from more than one level of explanation Chapter 1

Other Bases for Comparing Leadership Theories Leader vs. Follower-Centered Theory Descriptive vs. Prescriptive Theory Universal vs. Contingency Theory Chapter 1

Perspectives on Effective Leadership Behavior

Learning Objectives Understand what research methods have been used to study leadership behavior Understand the findings in the early research on leadership behavior Understand how leadership behavior can be described with either broad or specific categories Understand the different methods for developing taxonomies of leadership behavior

Learning Objectives (Cont.) Understand why task and relations behaviors are important for leadership effectiveness Understand how specific types of task and relations behaviors can be used effectively Understand why it is useful to classify leadership behavior in terms of a three-dimensional model Understand the contributions and limitations of the behavior approach

Ohio State Leadership Studies Leadership Behaviors Consideration – leader’s concern for people and interpersonal relationships Initiating structure – leader’s concern for accomplishing the task

Ohio State Leadership Studies Research Results Relation between consideration and turnover rate

Ohio State Leadership Studies Research Results (Cont.) Relation between initiating structure and turnover rate

Michigan Leadership Studies Leadership Behaviors Task-oriented behaviors Relations-oriented behaviors Participative leadership Peer Leadership

Limitations of Survey Research Bias in Behavior Description Questionnaires Ambiguous items Response bias Aggregation of items

Problems Interpreting Causality in Survey Studies

Experiments Laboratory Experiments Field Experiments Low external validity (generalizability) High internal validity Inconsistent findings Field Experiments Difficult to conduct High external validity Low internal validity Positive results for relations-oriented behaviors; mixed and inconsistent results for task-oriented behaviors

Critical Incident Research Types of Leader Behaviors Planning, coordinating, and organizing operations Supervising subordinates Establishing and maintaining good relations with subordinates Establishing and maintaining good relations with superiors, peers, and outsiders Assuming responsibility for observing organizational policies, carrying out required duties, and making necessary decisions Limitations of Critical Incident Research

The “High-High” Leader The Managerial Grid & PM Leadership Theory Additive versus Multiplicative Model Limited Support for a Universal Model Need to incorporate situational variables

Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 Concern for Production Concern for People (1,1) Impoverished Middle-of-the-Road (5,5) Authority-Compliance (9,1) Team Management (9,9) (1,9) Country Club 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Leadership Behavior Taxonomies

Leadership Behavior Taxonomies (Cont.) Sources of Diversity Among Taxonomies No absolute set of correct behaviors Levels of abstraction Various methods used to develop taxonomies Limitations of Factor-Based Taxonomies

Behaviors at Different Levels of Abstraction

Leadership Behavior Taxonomies Three-Dimensional Taxonomy Task-Oriented Behaviors Relations-Oriented Behaviors Change-Oriented Behaviors

Task-Oriented Behaviors Organize work activities to improve efficiency Plan short-term operation Assign work to groups or individuals Clarify what results are expected for a task Set specific goals and standards for task performance

Task-Oriented Behaviors (Cont.) Explain rules, policies, and standard operating procedures Direct and coordinate work activities Monitor operations and performance Resolve immediate problems that would disrupt the work

Relations-Oriented Behaviors Provide support and encouragement to someone with a difficult task Express confidence that a person or group can perform a difficult task Socialize with people to build relationships Recognize contributions and accomplishments Provide coaching and mentoring when appropriate

Relations-Oriented Behaviors (Cont.) Consult with people on decisions affecting them Allow people to determine the best way to do a task Keep people informed about actions affecting them Help resolve conflicts in a constructive way Use symbols, ceremonies, rituals, and stories to build team identity Recruit competent new members for the team or organization

Change-Oriented Behaviors Monitor the external environment to detect threats and opportunities Interpret events to explain the urgent need for change Study competitors and outsiders to get ideas for improvements Envision exciting new possibilities for the organization Encourage people to view problems or opportunities in a different way Develop innovative new strategies linked to core competencies

Change-Oriented Behaviors (Cont.) Encourage and facilitate innovation and entrepreneurship in the organization Encourage and facilitate collective learning in the team or organization Experiment with new approaches for achieving objectives Make symbolic changes that are consistent with a new vision or strategy Encourage and facilitate efforts to implement major change Announce and celebrate progress in implementing change Influence outsiders to support change and negotiate agreements with them

Comparison of Recent Taxonomies

Specific Task Behaviors Action Planning Identify necessary action steps Identify the optimal sequence of action steps Estimate the time needed to carry out each action step Determine starting times and deadlines for each action step Estimate the cost of each action step Determine who will be accountable for each action step Develop procedures for monitoring progress

Specific Task Behaviors (cont.) Clarifying Roles and Objectives Defining Job Responsibilities Explain the important job responsibilities Clarify the person’s scope of authority Explain how the job relates to the mission of the unit Explain important policies, rules, and requirements Assigning Work Clearly explain the assignment Explain the reasons for an assignment Clarify priorities and deadlines Check for comprehension Setting Performance Goals Set goals for relevant aspects of performance Set goals that are clear and specific Set goals that are challenging but realistic Set a target date for attainment of each goal

Specific Relations Behaviors Guidelines for Supporting

Specific Relations Behaviors Guidelines for Coaching

Specific Relations Behaviors Guidelines for Mentoring

Specific Relations Behaviors Guidelines for Recognizing

The Nature of Managerial Work

Learning Objectives Understand what methods have been used to study managerial work Understand the typical activity patterns for people in managerial positions Understand the different roles required for managers and how they are changing

Learning Objectives (Cont.) Understand how managerial roles and activities are affected by aspects of the situation Understand how managers cope with the demands, constraints, and choices confronting them Understand the limitations of descriptive research on managerial activities Understand how managers can make effective use of their time

Typical Activity Patterns in Managerial Work Pace of work is hectic and unrelenting Content of work is varied and fragmented Many activities are reactive Interactions often involve peers and outsiders

Typical Activity Patterns in Managerial Work (Cont.) Many interactions involve oral communication Decision processes are disorderly and political Most planning is informal and adaptive

The Content of Managerial Work Job description research Supervising Planning and organizing Decision making Monitoring indicators Controlling Representing Coordinating Consulting Administering

Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles

Role Conflicts Role senders Role expectations Conflicting demands Perceptions of role requirements

Unique Role Requirements Stewart (1967, 1976, 1982) Demands – required duties, activities, and responsibilities Constraints – limiting characteristics of the organization and external environment Choices – activities that a manager may do but is not required to do

Unique Role Requirements Situational Determinants Pattern of relationships Work patterns Exposure

Research on Situational Determinants Level of management Size of organizational unit Lateral interdependence Crisis situation Stage in the organizational life cycle

Changes in the Nature of Managerial Work Economics, politics, and society Globalization New computer and telecommunications technology Structure of organizations Outsourcing and just-in-time inventories

Managerial Activities

Applications for Managers Guidelines for Managing Time Understand the reasons for demands and constraints Expand the range of choices Determine what you want to accomplish Analyze how to use your time Plan daily and weekly activities

Applications for Managers Guidelines for Managing Time (Cont.) Avoid unnecessary activities Conquer procrastination Take advantage of reactive activities Make time for reflective planning

Applications for Managers Guidelines for Problem Solving Identify important problems that can be solved Look for connections among problems Experiment with innovative solutions Take decisive action to deal with crises