Part I: The Once and Future King: Worldview in White and Tennyson Part II: Worldview in Parody

 One of the core myths of the Celtic people.  Legends link Arthur to a common poetic idea of Britain as a kind of paradise with an unspoiled primeval past.  Together, the legends add up to the greatest theme in the literature of the British Isles.

 A composite of different legends, written by different authors at different times.  A victorious 5 th century warrior is attributed to Arthur, but historian Gildas (c ) gives the leader of the Britons another name.  Leads Britons in a successful battle against Saxon invaders.

 First mention of Arthur by name is by Nennius in his book The History of the Britons written in 830.  Portrayed as a heroic British general and Christian warrior in late 5 th century, when Saxon tribes were attacking Britain.  12 battles over a great span of time and place are attributed to Arthur, an impossible feat.

 After the Norman Invasion of 1066, Celtic literature blossomed with stories of triumph over the new masters.  Arthur was a perfect protagonist and hero for these stories.  Geoffrey of Monmouth ( ) wrote stories propelling Arthur to mythical status.  Tells the life story of Arthur.  Includes Merlin, Guinevere, Camelot, Avalon

 Henry II marries Eleanor of Aquitaine, merging the English and French courts.  Poets transformed the Arthur legends from political fable to tales of chivalric romance.  Court writer Chretien de Troyes, a writer of Medieval Arthurian Romance, turned the legends into a spiritual quest with the mention of the Holy Grail in an unfinished poem.  It became a mystical symbol of all human quests, yearning for something desirable but unattainable.

 Published Le Morte d’Arthur ( The Death of Arthur) in  Vision of a knightly golden age swept away by civil strife and the betrayal of its ideals.  Becomes the basis of Tennyson’s epic poem The Idylls of the King (19 th Century).  T.H. White’s The Once and Future King is a 20 th century modernization of Mallory’s original Arthur legends.

 While the setting is medieval, White’s story blends modern ideas with medieval culture.  Medieval Worldview:  Reverence for kings, divine right, & national pride (grief over death of king; worry over new king)  Belief in the supernatural, magic, mysticism (Merlin, talking animals, sword experience)  System of knights and chivalric code  Quests, tasks, tournaments (travel to London, Kay’s need to prove himself in a tournament).

 Modern Worldview:  Slang, conversational, humorous language (“hair” for “heir”, “next-of-skin” for “next of kin”).  Use of anachronisms (nurse cutting pictures from magazines, mention of communism, football field)  Knights appear unintelligent, silly (King Pellinore)  Initial rejection of divine right (Wart)  A skeptical knight (Sir Gummore)

 Mallory’s telling of the legends upholds the unwavering and unquestioning medieval attitude toward royalty and knighthood.  White’s depiction of the Arthur legends takes away some of the mysticism, reverence, and divine nature of British royalty and knights, even making fun of them or making them seem trite and unimportant.  This highlights the change in thought from medieval to modern times. Royalty is no longer upheld as divine, and has even been ridiculed as unnecessary and irrelevant.

 Tennyson was a widely popular and prolific poet of the Victorian Age (1800s).  Like White, Tennyson uses Mallory’s Le Morte d’Arthur as the basis of his long epic poem recounting the exploits of King Arthur.  However, Tennyson’s Victorian worldview varies from White’s 20 th century modern worldview, as seen in his epic poem.

 Victorians were optimistic, spiritual, moral, determined people who modeled and reverenced proper behavior & fulfilling one’s responsibility (duty).  They had a great sense of national pride.  Things that shook their faith:  Darwin’s Origin of Species (1859)  A decline in religious belief  A rise in agnosticism and atheism  Move to cities: industrialization

 Tennyson’s belief was challenged by new scientific theories of evolution.  He remained unshaken in his faith, optimistic that “God is not dead.”  His epic poem about Arthur reflects this optimism and belief. (Arthur would return)  His poem retains medieval beliefs and systems, showing Arthur as strong and unwavering in the face of a changing world.  Many aspects of Victorian thought and ideals are woven into his epic poem.

 Humorous work (has many forms)  Imitates style or ideas of other works in an exaggerated or ridiculous way  Deeper purpose: to convey writer’s perspective on a subject  Points out faulty attitudes, ideals, values or past and current society

 Author may ridicule various beliefs, traditions, customs of another writer’s worldview, thereby supporting their own worldview:  Superstitions  Religious beliefs, icons, symbols  Government systems  Authority figures in government or religion  Morality  The arts  Anything a culture holds as sacred or noble

 American writer (Hannibal, Missouri)   Prolific and popular writer known for humor (Tom Sawyer, Huckleberry Finn)  In later years, became an outspoken critic of society and government, questioning the reason for existence.

 A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court is a humorous parody of medieval customs, beliefs, and ideals.  Juxtaposes a 19 th century American Yankee with medieval characters.  Yankees were known for their shrewdness, skepticism, and blunt responses, unlike medieval characters.  It’s one of the first stories to introduce time travel.  Considered by some to be science fiction.

 Miguel de Cervantes was a 16 th century Spanish writer ( – Shakespeare’s contemporary)  His novel Don Quixote made Cervantes popular.  He is regarded as Spain’s greatest writer.  Knights no longer existed during Cervantes’ time, his parody shows the ridiculous nature of medieval romance - the knight’s code of chivalry and his task/quest for adventure.  This is not a King Arthur parody.