PowerPoint® Presentation by Jim Foley Chapter 11 Motivation and Work PowerPoint® Presentation by Jim Foley © 2013 Worth Publishers

Motivation Motivation refers to a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal. For example, Aron Ralston found the motivation to cut off his own arm when trapped on a cliff in Utah in 2003. What motivated him to do this? Hunger? The drive to survive? Click to reveal bullets. The drive to survive might seem more obvious, but see if students can guess why the drive to reproduce is listed here. Ralston, after thinking he had no way to survive, had a dream of a one-armed man picking up a young boy. Maybe this stirred up his desire to live to be a father someday. [His first child, Leo, was born in 2010.]

Do Instincts Direct Human Behavior? An instinct is a fixed (rigid and predictable) pattern of behavior that is not acquired by learning and is likely to be rooted in genes and the body. No animation. Humans may have a general nesting “instinct,” but the specific behavior is less predictable. The bird can only build one kind of nest, but humans may decorate a baby’s room in a variety of ways, or use this general “instinct” to simply buy and repair a home. Human “nesting” behavior Instinctual nesting

Instincts  Evolutionary Perspective Other species have genetically programmed instincts “motivating” their actions. Do humans? Human babies show certain reflexes, but in general, our behavior is less prescribed by genetics than other animals. We may, however, have general patterns of behavior which can be explained as emerging through natural selection. Instinct theory has given way to evolutionary theory in explaining human behavior. Click to reveal bullets.

Drive Reduction A drive is an aroused/tense state related to a physical need such as hunger or thirst. Drive-reduction theory refers to the idea that humans are motivated to reduce these drives, such as eating to reduce the feeling of hunger. This restores homeostasis, a steady internal state. Click to reveal bullets and example.

Drives “Push” and Incentives “Pull” Drives are based on inner needs and can be seen as a force “pushing” from inside of us. Incentives are external stimuli that either appeal to our needs or trigger our aversive feelings, and can be used to “pull” us in our actions. Automatic animation for first half. Click to reveal example. For example: we have a drive to have food, or money we can exchange for food. employers can use the prospect of a raise in (or elimination of) salary as an incentive for us to follow employer goals and policies.

Hierarchy of Needs/Motives In 1943, Abraham Maslow proposed that humans strive to ensure that basic needs are satisfied before they find motivation to pursue goals that are higher on this hierarchy. No animation.

The Hypothalamus and Hunger Receptors throughout the digestive system monitor levels of glucose and send signals to the hypothalamus in the brain. The hypothalamus then can send out appetite-stimulating hormones, and later, after eating, appetite-suppressing hormones. Click to reveal second text box.

How much do we eat? Eating depends in part on situational influences. Social facilitation: the presence of others accentuates our typical eating habits Unit bias: we may eat only one serving/unit (scoop, plateful, bun-full) of food, but will eat more if the serving size is larger Buffet effect: we eat more if more options are available Click to reveal bullet points. Instructor: the buffet effect (not an official term; I just made it up here) can be explained in evolutionary terms. See if students can guess or recall from the reading that our ancestors stored fat and nutrients during bountiful times, when more variety was available. For example, humans prepared for possible winter famines in early fall when more kinds of plants were bearing fruit and animals were storing fat.

Regulating Weight When a person’s weight drops or increases, the body responds by adjusting hunger and energy use to bring weight back to its initial stable amount. Most mammals, without consciously regulating, have a stable weight to which they keep returning. This is also known as their set point. A person’s set point might rise with age, or change with economic or cultural conditions. Therefore, this “set point” of stable weight is more of a current but temporary “settling point.” Click to reveal bullets.

Variations from the Norm of Body Weight In some cases, the set point of a person’s body weight drifts from a healthy weight. Psychological disorders of eating can override this set point, ignore biological signals, and lead to extreme weight loss. In other cases, the set point seems to drift upward. Biological tendencies can lead to increased weight that is hard to lose, leading to obesity. Click to reveal bullets. Instructor: I have added this introduction to the next topic to put it in context. Eating disorders used to be in this chapter and have been moved to the “Psychological Disorders” chapter, but I felt that an acknowledgement of them here would help show how these topics relate. Students may bring them up anyway, or at least may be interested in debating the relative role in obesity of biology, psychological factors, culture, and the idea that it’s just about choosing to eat more or less.

Obesity and Weight Control Physiology of Obesity Once a person is obese, losing weight is not so easy as “just eating less.” Fat has a lower metabolic rate then other tissue, so a person might gain weight when eating “normally.” Eating less to lose weight slows metabolism. This prevents weight loss, and ensures weight gain when returning to a normal diet. Even if weight loss succeeds, a formerly obese person will have to eat less than an average person just to prevent weight gain. How does obesity develop, and why is it hard to change? It was adaptive for our ancestors to crave energy-rich food when available. Problem: energy-rich ‘junk’ food is now easily available, and cheaper than healthy food It is adaptive to slow down our burning of fat when food is scarce. Problem: in poverty or in crash diets, our body can slow down weight loss Click to reveal bullets and sidebar bullets. Instructor: if you decide to keep the word “poverty” in the last bullet point on the left, you can prompt students by saying, “and when food is available to people in poverty living in neighborhoods with easy access only to convenient stores, what food is most easily and cheaply available?” This is why people in poverty might be obese but it may not be a sign that they are “spoiled” or do not have a problem with adequate income.

Hormones and Sexual Motivation Sexual motivation may have evolved to enable creatures to pass on their genes. Sexual desire and response is not as tied to hormone levels in humans as it is in animals. During ovulation, women show a rise in estrogen and also in testosterone. As this happens, sexual desire rises in women and also in the men around them (whose testosterone level rises). Low levels of testosterone can reduce sexual motivation. Click to reveal bullets.

The Effect of External Stimuli All effects of external stimuli on sexual behavior are more common in men than in women. The short-term effect of exposure to images of nudity and sexuality increases sexual arousal and desire. Possible dangers include: the distortion of our ideas of what is appropriate and effective for mutual sexual satisfaction. the habit of finding sexual response through idealized images may lead to decreased sexual response to real-life sexual partners. Imagined Stimuli The brain is involved in sexuality; people with no genital sensation (e.g. spinal cord injuries) can feel sexual desire. The brain also contains dreams, memories, and fantasies that stimulate sexual desire. Fantasies are not just a replacement for sexual activity; they often accompany sex. Click to reveal bullets and sidebar

Origins of Sexual Orientation Theories suggesting that sexual preference is related to parenting behaviors or childhood abuse are not supported by evidence. Differences appear to begin at birth. This could be genetic, or it could be caused by exposure to hormones or antigens in the womb. The fraternal birth order effect: being born after a brother increases the likelihood of being gay. Cause or Effect? The brain and other differences in sexual orientation Heterosexual men have a certain cell cluster in the hypothalamus that, on average, is larger than in gay men and in women. Gay men are more likely than straight men to be poets, fiction writers, artists, and musicians. Click to reveal bullets and sidebar. A comment implied in the text about these two examples: non-sexual differences between gay and straight men could be biological but could also be a function of the social experience of being gay in this society.

Genetics and Homosexuality In fruit flies, a difference in one gene determined sexual orientation and behavior. Homosexuality seems to run in families and among identical twins, but still emerges spontaneously, even in one of a pair of twins. Genes related to homosexuality could be passed on by siblings or by people not living exclusively according to their sexual orientation. Homosexuality and Gender Hormones that affect gender may also affect sexual orientation. In mammals, female fetuses exposed to extra testosterone, and male fetuses exposed to low levels of testosterone, often grow up with: bodies, brains, and faces with traits of the opposite sex. the sexual attraction expected of the opposite sex to one’s own sex. Click to reveal bullets.

Another Motivation: “To Belong” What do people need besides food and sex? Aristotle: friends Alfred Adler: community In Middle English, to be wretched [wrecche] means to “be without kin nearby” Roy Baumeister, Mark Leary, and Abraham Maslow: “To Belong.” Click to reveal bullets and definition. Belonging refers to being connected to others; part of a group or family or community.

Why do we have a need to belong? Evoluti onary psych ology perspe ctive: seekin g bonds with others aids surviv al in many ways Keeping children close to caregivers Mutual protection in a group Cooperation in hunting and sharing food Division of labor to allow growing food Emotional support to get through crises Why do we have a need to belong? No animation.

Balancing Bonding with Other Needs The need to bond with others is so strong that we can feel lost without close relationships. However, we also seem to need autonomy and a sense of personal competence/efficacy. There a tension between “me” and “us,” but these goals can work together.  Belonging builds self-esteem, and prepares us for confident autonomy. Click to reveal bullets.

The Need to Belong Leads to: loyalty to friends, teams, groups, and families. However, the need to belong also leads to: changing our appearance to win acceptance. staying in abusive relationships. joining gangs, nationalist groups, and violent organizations. Click to reveal text box. Abusive relationships typically undermine our autonomy and our sense of self-efficacy/competence. Ironically, this makes us less likely to leave an abusive relationship.

Social Networking = Social Connection? Connecting online can be seen as taking turns reading brief words about each other, or as an experience of connection and/or belonging. Portrayal of one’s self online is often close to one’s actual sense of self. Use of social networking can become a compulsion, sacrificing face-to-face interaction and in-depth conversation. Click to reveal bullets. Regarding the face-to-face interaction: I suggest pointing out here that something called “Facebook” may have reduced our exposure to both faces and books.

Another Area of Motivation: Work Why do we work…only for money and other incentives? The income from work can indirectly satisfy the drive for food and shelter. Some are driven by achievement motivation. In rare cases, the goals and activities of work can feel like a calling, a fulfilling and socially useful activity. Some people may seek the optimal work experience called “flow.” “The best moments in our lives are not the passive, receptive, relaxing times … the best moments usually occur when a person’s body or mind is stretched to its limits in a voluntary effort to accomplish something difficult and worthwhile.” From Flow, by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi Click to reveal bullets. feeling purposefully engaged, deeply immersed, and challenged

The Psyc holo gy of the Work place : Indu strial - Orga nizati onal [I/O] Psyc holo gy I/O psycho logy include s three differe nt areas of focus Perso nnel psych ology: hiring and evaluat ing Organ izatio nal psych ology: manag ement, supervi sion, leaders hip, and teamw ork Huma n factor s psych ology: how worker s interfa ce with machin es and the enviro nment No animation.

Personnel Psychologists’ Work All of the below are potential areas of research and consultation for personnel psychologists. No animation.

Selecting, Hiring and Placing Employees Which employees will do the job well? Personnel psychologists can help find the right person for the right job. This involves: analyzing the content of the job to be filled. developing tools and procedures for assessing potential employees, and for selecting the ones that fit the job. helping to optimize worker placement and promotion. Strengths refer to enduring qualities that can be productively applied. Personnel psychologists such as Mary Tenopyr have done research to find which strengths predict success at various jobs. This research can be used to develop procedures for selecting applicants that have the right strengths for a job. Click to reveal bullets and text box.

How do we select the right applicants? aptitude tests job knowledge tests work samples past job performance To get the information which would predict future job performance, personnel psychologists recommend: Still, employers rely on an informal interview to get a “feel” for the applicant. Interviewers overestimate their ability to “read” people because of four errors: valuing intentions rather than habits. neglecting to recall bad “reads” such as past interviewees who failed or quit. seeing interview behavior as a predictor of job behavior. using prejudgments to interpret interviewee behavior. The interviewer illusion/ fallacy Click to reveal bullets. Interviewer illusion/fallacy: You can ask students, “which common human thinking error does this slide topic remind you of?” The concept that “Interviewers overestimate their ability...” is a classic case of the overconfidence error. “How about error #2 above?” [Students might say the availability heuristic, hindsight bias, or confirmation bias, any of which could be justified (the availability heuristic fits best). Error #3 is a type of error they probably haven’t learned about yet. It is known as the fundamental attribution error, that is, seeing the interviewee’s friendly behavior as a sign of his/her personality rather than as a function of the situation. Error #4 is simply prejudice; if you like the interviewee, you may see an error as a sign of humility rather than as a disqualification.

Organizational Psychology Goals of Organizational Psychology Research Organizational psychology: studying and consulting about how worker productivity and motivation is affected by different patterns of worker- management engagement, leadership, and teamwork Maximizing worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity Understanding organizational structures and dynamics Facilitating organizational change No animation. Improving teamwork and leadership

Grit: Motivation to Achieve and Self-Discipline to Succeed Achievement in most fields of work may seem like a function of talent; however, Thomas Edison noted that, “genius is 1 percent inspiration, 99 percent perspiration.” Talent itself can be a result of perseverance. According to the “ten year rule,” it takes about ten years of hard work to become a skilled expert in a field. Success in work is predicted more by self-discipline than by intelligence test scores. Organizational psychologists work in part to maximize motivation and put it to use for employers. Grit refers to a combination of desire for achievement and the ability/willingness to persist at hard work. Click to reveal text boxes. Implication: this topic is in the organizational psychology section, but it can apply also to hiring decisions. Employers, when hiring, should look for “grit”, that is, an applicant’s evidence of self-discipline and motivation, more than current level of expertise. Success in careers and organizations may be caused in part by people with grit, who stick to a goal when others would have quit.

Satisfaction & Engagement Employees who are satisfied in an organization are likely to stay longer. Employees who are more engaged (connected, passionate, and energetic) get more work done. Because a happy worker is a productive worker, organizational psychologists study factors related to employee satisfaction, such as whether a worker: feels that they personally matter to the organization and to other people. feels a sense that effort pays off in the quality of the work and in rewards such as salary and benefits. Click to reveal bullets.

Employee Engagement: Three Levels Many employees are engaged (connected, passionate, and energetic about the companies/organizations they work for). Organizational psychologists find that people are most engaged in work when they: know what is expected of them. have the materials they need to do the work. have opportunities to excel. feel fulfilled. feel part of something important. have opportunities to grow/develop in the job. Some are not engaged; they show up and get tasks done but show little passion or energy. Click to reveal text boxes and bullets. With some items, such as “feeling fulfilled,” it is not clear whether items on this list cause engagement, or vice versa, or whether engagement and fulfillment are two parts of the same experience. Others are actively disengaged; they are unhappy, alienated, and not invested, even undermining what people are trying to accomplish.

Human Factors: Work that Fits People The psychology of human factors: taking the design of the body and the functioning of the mind into account when designing products and processes. This measuring cup adjusts for a human factor.  When we hold a cup by the handle, our eyes are above the cup, so it’s hard to read the scales on the side. How does this cup adjust to the human factor?