B0H4M CHAPTER 14

14.1 Individual Needs and Motivation  Types of content theories:  Hierarchy of needs theory  ERG theory  Two-factor theory  Acquired needs theory

 Motivation and individual needs ◦ Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.  Needs ◦ Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of an individual. ◦ Explain workplace behaviour and attitudes. ◦ Create tensions that influence attitudes and behaviour. ◦ Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need satisfaction.

 Hierarchy of needs theory ◦ Developed by Abraham Maslow. ◦ Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace behavior and attitudes. ◦ Lower-order needs:  Physiological, safety, and social needs.  Desires for physical and social well being. ◦ Higher-order needs:  Esteem and self-actualization needs.  Desire for psychological growth and development.

 ERG theory ◦ Developed by Clayton Alderfer. ◦ Three need levels:  Existence needs — desires for physiological and material well-being.  Relatedness needs — desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships.  Growth needs — desires for continued psychological growth and development.

 Two-factor theory ◦ Developed by Frederick Herzberg. ◦ Hygiene factors:  Elements of the job context.  Sources of job dissatisfaction. ◦ Satisfier factors:  Elements of the job content.  Sources of job satisfaction and motivation.

 Acquired needs theory ◦ Developed by David McClelland. ◦ People acquire needs through their life experiences. ◦ Needs that are acquired:  Need for Achievement (nAch)  Need for Power (nPower)  Need for Affiliation (nAff)

14.2 Process theories of motivation ◦ How people make choices to work hard or not. ◦ Choices are based on:  Individual preferences.  Available rewards.  Possible work outcomes.  Types of process theories: ◦ Equity theory. ◦ Expectancy theory. ◦ Goal-setting theory. ◦ Self-efficacy theory.

Equity Theory ◦ Developed by J. Stacy Adams. ◦ When people believe that they have been treated unfairly in comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation.  Perceived inequity.  Perceived equity. ◦ People respond to perceived negative inequity by changing: Work inputs, Rewards received, Comparison points, Situation.

Expectancy Theory ◦ Developed by Victor Vroom. ◦ Key expectancy theory variables:  Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance.  Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards. ◦ Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes. ◦ Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion: M = E x I x V ◦ If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low.

Goal-setting theory ◦ Developed by Edwin Locke. ◦ Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly motivating. ◦ Motivational effects of task goals:  Provide direction to people in their work.  Clarify performance expectations.  Establish a frame of reference for feedback.  Provide a foundation for behavioural self-management.

Self-Efficacy Theory ◦ a person’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task ◦ Capability directly affects motivation  higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy.  self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting. ◦ Enactive mastery – person gains confidence through positive experience ◦ Vicarious modeling – learning by observing others ◦ Verbal persuasion – encouragement from others that one can perform a task ◦ Emotional arousal – high stimulation or energy to perform well in a situation

14.3 Reinforcement Theory pf Motivation ◦ Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on future behavior. ◦ Operant conditioning: Applies law of effect to control behavior by manipulating its consequences.

Operant conditioning strategies: ◦ Positive reinforcement  Increases the frequency of a behaviour through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence. ◦ Negative reinforcement  Increases the frequency of a behaviour through the contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence. ◦ Punishment  Decreases the frequency of a behaviour through the contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence. ◦ Extinction  Decreases the frequency of a behaviour through the contingent removal of an pleasant consequence.

 Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on ◦ Law of contingent reinforcement —  Reward delivered only if desired behaviour is exhibited. ◦ Law of immediate reinforcement —  More immediate the delivery of a reward, the more reinforcement value it has.

14.4 Motivation and Job design  Job ◦ A collection of tasks performed in support of organizational objectives.  Job design ◦ The process of creating or defining jobs by assigning specific work tasks to individuals and groups. ◦ Jobs should be designed so that both performance and satisfaction result.

 Job simplification. ◦ Standardizing work procedures and employing people in well-defined and highly specialized tasks. ◦ Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and low in job depth. ◦ Automation.  Total mechanization of a job.  Most extreme form of job simplification.

 Job rotation and job enlargement: ◦ Expands job scope. ◦ Job rotation.  Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different task assignments. ◦ Job enlargement.  Increases task variety by combining two or more tasks previously assigned to separate workers.  Horizontal loading.

 Job enrichment. ◦ Building more opportunities for satisfaction into a job by expanding its content. ◦ Expands both job scope and job depth. ◦ Frequently accomplished through vertical loading.

 Core job characteristics: ◦ Skill variety. ◦ Task identity. ◦ Task significance. ◦ Autonomy. ◦ Feedback.

 Improving core job characteristics: ◦ Form natural units of work. ◦ Combine tasks. ◦ Establish client relationships. ◦ Open feedback channels. ◦ Practice vertical loading.

 Flexible working hours. ◦ Any work schedule that gives employees some choice in the pattern of their daily work hours.  Core time — all employees must be at work.  Flextime — allows employees to schedule around personal and family responsibilities. Compressed workweek

 Job sharing. ◦ One full-time job is split between two or more persons.  Telecommuting. ◦ A work arrangement that allows a portion of scheduled work hours to be completed outside of the office. ◦ Hoteling. ◦ Virtual offices.

◦ Freedom from  Constraints of commuting.  Fixed hours.  Special work attire.  Direct contact with supervisors. ◦ Increased productivity. ◦ Fewer distractions. ◦ Being one’s own boss. ◦ Having more personal time. Potential advantages of telecommuting Management 2e - Chapter 1424

◦ Working too much. ◦ Having less personal time. ◦ Difficulty in separating work and personal life. ◦ Less time for family. ◦ Feelings of isolation. ◦ Loss of visibility for promotion. ◦ Difficulties supervising work-at-home employees from a distance. Potential disadvantages of telecommuting Management 2e - Chapter 1425

 Part-time work. ◦ Work done on any schedule less than the standard 40-hour workweek and does not qualify person as a full-time employee. ◦ Contingency workers  Part-time workers who supplement the full- time workforce, often on a long-term basis.  Now constitute 30 percent of the American workforce. Management 2e - Chapter 1426

 Implications of part-time work: ◦ Provides employers with flexibility in controlling labour costs and dealing with cyclical labour demands. ◦ Temporary workers may lack commitment and be less productive. ◦ Contingency workers are often paid less and don’t receive important fringe benefits. Management 2e - Chapter 1427