Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–11–1 Chapter One Introduction to Psychology and Methods of Research

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–21–2 Did You Know That… One of the founders of modern psychology was such a poor student that he was actually left back a grade in school? A movement that once dominated psychology believed that psychologists should turn away from the study of the mind? The school of psychology originated by Sigmund Freud holds that we are generally unaware of our underlying motives?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–31–3 Did You Know That… (cont.) A major school of psychology was inspired by the view from a train? A student successfully completed all Ph.D. requirements at Johns Hopkins University but was refused a doctorate because she was a woman?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–41–4 Did You Know That… (cont.) A sample of 1,500 people may better represent the American population than a sample of 100,000? You can obtain listings and abstracts of articles from major psychology journals by using your home computer (and much of it is free of charge)?

Module 1.1 Foundations of Modern Psychology

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–61–6 Module 1.1 Preview Questions What is psychology? What are the origins of psychology? What are the major early schools of psychology? What are the major contemporary perspectives in psychology?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–71–7 What Is Psychology? The science of behavior and mental processes. Why is psychology considered a science? What do we mean by behavior and mental processes?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–81–8 Origins of Psychology Greek roots –Psyche “mind” –Logos “study” or “knowledge” Ancient Greek philosophers –Socrates (ca B.C.): Know thyself. –Plato (ca B.C.): Our senses are not to be trusted. –Aristotle (ca B.C.): Knowledge through careful observation. Confucius (ca B.C.): We are inherently good, not evil.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–91–9 Figure 1.1: Psychology, the Early Days: A Timeline

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–10 Figure 1.1: Psychology, the Early Days: A Timeline (cont’d)

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–11 Origins of Psychology (cont.) During late 19 th century psychology emerges as a scientific discipline. Gustav Theodor Fechner ( ) studies psychophysics. Hermann von Helmholtz ( ) studies sensation and perception. –Develops theory of how people perceive color.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–12 Wilhelm Wundt ( ) German scientist. Established first psychology laboratory in Psychology transitions from philosophy to science.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–13 Wilhelm Wundt (cont.) Interested in people’s mental experiences. Used method of introspection. Wanted to develop model of conscious experience by breaking it down into its component parts.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–14 Edward Titchner ( ) Brought Wundt’s teachings and methods to U.S. School of psychology known as structuralism.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–15 G. Stanley Hall ( ) First American to work in Wundt’s laboratory. Established first psychological laboratory in U.S. in Founded American Psychological Association in Made important contributions to child psychology.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–16 William James ( ) Founded school of psychology known as functionalism. Shift focus from introspection to the functions of behavior. –Why we do what we do. Influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution. –Adaptive behaviors more likely to survive. Also concerned with stream of consciousness.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–17 John Watson ( ) Founded school of psychology known as behaviorism. –Since can’t observe mental processes, psychology should become a science of behavior only. Environment molds behavior. By 1920s, behaviorism becomes dominant force in American psychology.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–18 B. F. Skinner ( ) Studied how behavior is shaped by rewards and punishments. Principles of learning apply to animals and humans alike.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–19 Max Wertheimer ( ) Train ride led to founding of Gestalt psychology. How does brain organize and structures perceptions of world?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–20 Figure 1.2: What is This? Gestalt maxim: “The whole is greater than the sum of the parts.”

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–21 Sigmund Freud ( ) Austrian physician. Focused on the unconscious mind. Emphasized importance of early childhood experiences. View of psychology called the psychodynamic perspective. Developed form of psychotherapy known as psychoanalysis.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–22 Contemporary Psychology Behavioral Perspective Psychodynamic Perspective Humanistic Perspective Physiological Perspective Cognitive Perspective Sociocultural Perspective

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–23 Figure 1.3: Ethnic/Racial Breakdown of U.S. Population in 2000 Source: (1994, March). Current Population Reports, Series, Household and Family

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–24 Figure 1.4: Projected Racial Breakdown of U.S. Population in 2050 Source: (1994, March). Current Population Reports, Series, Household and Family

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–25 Module 1.2 Psychologists: Who They Are and What They Do

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–26 Module 1.2 Preview Questions What are the various specialties in psychology? What changes have occurred in the ethnic and gender characteristics of psychologists over time?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–27 Psychological Research Basic Research: Focus is on acquiring knowledge, even if no practical application. Applied Research: Focus is on finding solutions to specific problems.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–28 Figure 1.5: Psychologists’ Areas of Specialization Source: Psychological Association (1998) APA Directory Survey: Selected

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–29 Figure 1.6: Where Psychologists Work Source: Psychological Association (1998) APA Directory Survey: Selected

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–30 Specialty Areas Experimental psychology Clinical psychology Counseling psychology School psychology Educational psychology Developmental psychology Personality psychology Social psychology Environmental psychology Industrial/Organizational psychology Health psychology Consumer psychology Neuropsychology Geropsychology Forensic psychology Sports psychology

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–31 Women in Early Psychology Mary Whiton Calkins ( ) Margaret Floy Washburn ( )

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–32 African Americans in Early Psychology Gilbert Haven Jones ( ) Kenneth Clark (b. 1914) Mamie Clark ( )

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–33 Figure 1.7: Ethnicity of Ph.D. Psychologists Source: National Science Foundation

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–34 Figure 1.8: Women Ph.D. Recipients in Psychology Source: American Psychological Association, Research Office

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–35 Module 1.3 Research Methods in Psychology

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–36 Module 1.3 Preview Questions What are the major objectives of science? What is the scientific method, and what are its four general steps? What are the major research methods psychologists use? What ethical guidelines must psychologists follow in their research?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–37 Objectives of Science Description –Observations vs. inferences Explanation –Purpose of theories Prediction Control

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–38 Figure 1.9: General Steps in the Scientific Method

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–39 Case Study Method In-depth study of one or more individuals. Anecdotes as casual case studies. Limitations of case study method.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–40 Survey Method Information gathered from targeted groups of people. –Structured interviews –Questionnaires Goal: generalize from sample to population –Importance of random sampling Problems –Social desirability bias –Volunteer bias

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–41 Naturalistic Observation Direct observation of behavior in natural environment. Problems –Observer biases –Possible unintended consequences

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–42 Correlational Method Used to examine the relationship between two variables. Correlation coefficient as a statistical measure of association –Positive vs. negative correlations Limitation: Correlation is not causation.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–43 Benefits of the Correlational Method Offers clues to underlying causes. Can identify groups at high risk for physical or behavioral problems. Increases understanding of relationships between variables or events.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–44 Experimental Method Allows for investigation of cause-and-effect relationships. Independent Variables: Factors that are manipulated in an experiment. Dependent Variables: Outcome variables believed to be dependent on independent variable.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–45 Experimental Method Participants Independent variable: control group Independent variable: experimental group Random Assignment Measure dependent variable: Is there a difference?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–46 Experimental Method Controlling for placebo effects Controlling for expectancy effects –Single-blind and double-blind procedures

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–47 Ethical Principles in Psychological Research Purposes: –Promote individual dignity. –Protect human welfare. –Preserve scientific integrity. Role of ethics review committees Role of informed consent Importance of confidentiality Ethical guidelines for animal research

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–48 Module 1.4 Application: Becoming a Critical Thinker

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–49 Module 1.4 Preview Question What are the key features of critical thinking?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–50 Features of Critical Thinking Question everything. Clarify what you mean. Avoid oversimplifying. Avoid overgeneralizing. Don’t confuse correlation with causation.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1–51 Features of Critical Thinking (cont’d) Consider assumptions. Examine sources. Question evidence. Consider alternative explanations.