PSY121 Developmental Psychology Jim Wilwerding, M.Div., MA, LMHC, CADC, NCC Fall, 2011

Chapter 1: Basic Concepts and Methods

In This Chapter  Introduction to Human Development  Key Issues in the Study of Human Development  Research Methods and Designs

An Introduction to Human Development Human Development: Scientific study of age-related changes in: Behavior Thinking Emotion Personality An entire lifespan!

Philosophical Roots Original Sin Augustine of Hippo  Humans are born selfish and must seek spiritual rebirth. Developmental Outcomes  Individuals struggle to overcome immoral actions.

Philosophical and Scientific Roots Innate Goodness Jean-Jacques Rousseau Emphasis on children and basic goodness of human nature Nurturance and protection needed Developmental Outcomes Children’s environment interferes or encourages

Philosophical and Scientific Roots The Blank Slate John Locke Empiricism Children as passive recipients of environmental experiences Developmental Outcomes Individual differences due to experience

Early Scientific Theories Charles Darwin First organized study of human development Evolution  Interplay of genetics and environmental adaptation Baby biographies  Detailed records of his own children’s early years

Early Scientific Theories First scientific study of child development G. Stanley Hall  Psychologist  Emphasis on norms or average ages at which developmental milestones occur  Coined “storm and stress” (adolescence)

The Lifespan Perspective Overview Important changes occur in each period of development. Children and adults experience major life passages. Increased longevity

Early Scientific Theories Systematic description of children across domains, particularly in the first five years of life Arnold Gesell  Maturation occurs “naturally” from genetically programmed sequence.  Used movie cameras, one-way mirrors

The Lifespan Perspective Paul Baltes Multi-contextual nature of development Plasticity and adaptability at all ages Interdisciplinary perspective and research With age, strategies used to maximize gain and compensate for losses

Domains and Periods of Development Three broad domain categories:

Periods of Development PrenatalInfancy Early Childhood Middle Childhood Adolescence Early Adulthood Middle Adulthood Late Adulthood

Stop and Think! What marks the end of each of these periods of development? How do you know?

Key Issues in the Study of Human Development Nature versus Nurture Nature  Inborn propensities; biological influences  Inborn biases Nurture  Learning from environmental experiences  Internal models of experience

Continuity versus Discontinuity Continuity = Quantitative change in amount or degree Discontinuity = Qualitative, step-like change What are the advantages and disadvantages of each kind of change?

Another Way to Look at It! If development consists only of additions, the concept of stages is not needed. If development involves reorganization or emergence strategies, quality, or skills, than stages are useful.

Three Kinds of Change Qualitative Changes in Kind or Type Normative age-graded universal changes  Social clock or age norms Normative history-graded changes  Cohort or generational effects Non-normative changes  Unique, unshared changes or individual differences

Contexts of Development Vulnerability and Resilience  Vulnerabilities and protective factors interact with a child’s environment.  Environments cause differential effects.  Resilient children gain support from optimal environments.

Contexts of Development Gender Gender matters.  Influences individual development  Interaction between characteristics and environment influences and is influenced by gender.

Contexts of Development Origins of Delinquency Patterson et al., 2002

Contexts of Development Individual differences related to timing  Critical period  Sensitive period  On-time events  Off-time events  Atypical development  “Double Whammy”

Now that you have heard several issues, which do you think are more important in understanding development—nature issues or nurture issues? Why? What part of the life span interests you the most? What issues would you like to learn about the most? Questions To Ponder

Research Methods and Designs Are theories and hypotheses the same?  Theories  Predictions or hypotheses

The Goals of Developmental Science  Describe development  Explain development  Predict developmental event  Influence some developmental outcome

Descriptive Methods Variables: characteristics that vary across people Relationship: when two or more variables vary together Can you think of two variables we could study to learn about our class?

Descriptive Methods Naturalistic Observations Descriptive methods: ways to identify relationship People observed in their normal environments Potential observer biases Limited generalizability Time consuming

Descriptive Methods Case Studies and Laboratory Observations Case Studies  In-depth examination of a single individual Laboratory Observations  Controlled setting for study

Descriptive Methods Surveys, Interviews and Questionnaires Two broad survey areas:  Questionnaires  Interviews Methods  Questions asked; answers recorded  Samples used

Correlations  Describe the strength of the relationship between two variables Positive correlation  High scores on one variable usually accompany high scores on the other. Negative correlation  Scores on two variables move in opposite directions.

Limitations of Correlations Correlation is NOT causality. Correlations measure the level or degree of covariation between two variables. They do not prove causal relationships.

Experimental Designs  Test causal hypotheses.  Randomly assign participants to different treatment and control groups.  Experimental (treatment) group  Control group

Experimental Designs Variables Independent variable or “cause” Dependent variable or “effect”  The dependent variable depends on the “cause.” Quasi-experiments  Participants not randomly assigned

Experimental Designs Three General Categories Let’s take a closer look at each.

Designs to Study Age-Related Changes Cross-Sectional Designs  People studied from different age groups at same time point  Can indicate possible age differences or age changes  But age-related differences may become confused with cohort or generational effects.

Birth Cohort or Generational Effects  Different generations have unique experiences.  Cohort and generational effects can become entangled.

Can you see any cohort patterns? Figure 1.1 An Example of a Cross-Sectional Design

Designs to Study Age-Related Changes Longitudinal Designs  Same individuals studied over a period of time  Individual consistencies and inconsistencies can be observed.  Net change assessed over time in the same people.

Longitudinal Designs: Some Problems  Practice or testing affect  Study attrition

Figure 1.2 Example of a Longitudinal Design

Designs to Study Age-Related Changes Sequential Designs  Combined groups from at least two cohorts followed in a longitudinal study  Comparison of cohorts while incorporating some degree of individual differences  Both aging AND cohort effects are possible.

Figure 1.3 An Example of a Cross- Sequential Design

Cross-Cultural Research Ethnographies  In-depth descriptions of single culture or context  May compare two or more cultures or subcultures  Can provide both descriptive and interpretive information

Cross-Cultural Research Benefits Cross-cultural Studies Search for universal and unique developmental changes Demonstrate degree of environmental variation within human development

Research Ethics Ethics: broad ethical principles for responsible conduct of research and use of any outcomes resulting from research In Research:  Protection of animal rights and human subjects  Universities, government, and organizations often have Institutional Review Boards (IRBs).

Research Ethics  Protection from harm  Informed consent  Confidentiality  Knowledge of result  Deception